مملكة خوتان
Kingdom of Khotan
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56–1006 | |||||||||
Kingdom of Khotan as of 1001 AD
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العاصمة | Yotkan | ||||||||
اللغات المشهجرة | Gāndhārī language 3-4th century.Khotanese, a dialect of the Saka language, in a variant of the Brāhmī script. | ||||||||
الدين | Buddhism | ||||||||
الحكومة | Monarchy | ||||||||
• c. 56 |
Yulin: Jianwu period (25–56 AD) | ||||||||
• 969 |
Nanzongchang (last) | ||||||||
التاريخ | |||||||||
• Khotan established |
c. 300 BC | ||||||||
• Established |
56 | ||||||||
• Yarkant attacks and annexes Khotan. Yulin abdicates and becomes king of Ligui |
56 | ||||||||
• Tibet invades and conquers Khotan |
670 | ||||||||
• Khotan held by the Muslim, Yūsuf Qadr Khān |
1006 | ||||||||
• Disestablished |
1006 | ||||||||
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جزء من عن |
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الفترة القديمة
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العصور الوسطى
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الفترة المتوسطة
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The Kingdom of Khotan was an ancient Iranian Saka Buddhist kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the southern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). The ancient capital was originally sited to the west of modern-day Hotan (بالصينية: 和田) at Yotkan. From the Han dynasty until at least the Tang dynasty it was known in Chinese as Yutian (بالصينية: 于闐, 于窴, or 於闐). This largely Buddhist kingdom existed for over a thousand years until it was conquered by the Muslim Kara-Khanid Khanate in 1006, during the Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang.
Built on an oasis, Khotan's mulberry groves allowed the production and export of silk and carpets, in addition to the city's other major products such as its famous nephrite jade and pottery. Despite being a significant city on the silk road as well as a notable source of jade for ancient China, Khotan itself is relatively small – the circumference of the ancient city of Khotan at Yōtkan was about 2.5 to 3.2 km (1.5 to 2 miles). Much of the archaeological evidence of the ancient city of Khotan however had been obliterated due to centuries of treasure hunting by local people.
The inhabitants of Khotan used Khotanese, an Eastern Iranian language, and Gandhari Prakrit, an Indo-Aryan language related to Sanskrit. There is debate as to how much Khotan's original inhabitants were ethnically and anthropologically South Asian and speakers of the Gāndhārī language versus the Saka, an Indo-European people of Iranian branch from the Eurasian Steppe. From the 3rd century onwards they also had a visible linguistic influence on the Gāndhārī language spoken at the royal court of Khotan. The Khotanese Saka language was also recognized as an official court language by the 10th century and used by the Khotanese rulers for administrative documentation.
الأسماء
التاريخ
وصول الساكا
Han influence on Khotan, however, would diminished when Han power declined.
أسرة تانگ
The Tang campaign against the oasis states began in 640 AD and Khotan submitted to the Tang emperor. The Four Garrisons of Anxi were established, one of them at Khotan.
It has been suggested Buddhists in Dunhuang, alarmed by the conquest of Khotan and ending of Buddhism there, sealed Cave 17 of the كهوف موگاوcontaining the Dunhuang manuscripts so to protect them. المحرر المسلم التوركي القراخاني محمود القشغري سجـَّل قصيدة قصيرة بلغة توركية عن الفتح:
بالتوركية:
kälginläyü aqtïmïz
kändlär üzä čïqtïmïz
furxan ävin yïqtïmïz
burxan üzä sïčtïmïzالترجمة:
We came down on them like a flood,
We went out among their cities,
We tore down the idol-temples,
We shat on the Buddha's head!
According to Kashgari who wrote in the 11th century, the inhabitants of Khotan still spoke a different language and did not know the Turkic language well. It is however believed that the Turkic languages became the lingua franca throughout the Tarim Basin by the end of the 11th century.
By the time Marco Polo visited Khotan, which was between 1271 and 1275, he reported that "the inhabitants all worship Mohamet."
خط زمني
- أول سكان المنطقة يظهر أنهم كانوا هنوداً من امبراطورية موريا حسب أساطير تأسيسها.
الحكام
(Some names are in modern Mandarin pronunciations based on ancient Chinese records)
- Yu Lin (俞林) 23
- Jun De (君得) 57
- Xiu Moba (休莫霸) 60
- Guang De (廣德) 60
- Fang Qian (放前) 110
- Jian (建) 132
- An Guo (安國) 152
- Qiu Ren (秋仁) 446
- Polo the Second (婆羅二世) 471
- Sanjuluomo the Third (散瞿羅摩三世) 477
- She Duluo (舍都羅) 500
- Viśa' (尉遲) 530
- Bei Shilian (卑示練) 590
- Viśa' Wumi (尉遲屋密) 620
- Fudu Xin (伏闍信) 642
- Fudu Xiong (伏闍雄) 665
- Viśa' Jing (尉遲璥) 691
- Viśa' Tiao (尉遲眺) 724
- Fu Shizhan (伏師戰) 725
- Fudu Da (伏闍達) 736
- Viśa' Gui (尉遲珪) 740
- Viśa' Sheng (尉遲勝) 745
- Viśa' Vāhaṃ (尉遲曜) 764
- Viśa' Jie (尉遲詰) 791
- Viśa' Chiye (尉遲遲耶) 829
- Viśa' Nanta (尉遲南塔) 844
- Viśa' Wana (尉遲佤那) 859
- Viśa' Piqiluomo (尉遲毗訖羅摩) 888
- Viśa' Saṃbhava (尉遲僧烏波) 912
- Viśa' Śūra (尉遲蘇拉) 967
- Viśa' Dharma (尉達磨) 978
- Viśa' Sangrāma (尉遲僧伽羅摩) 986
- Viśa' Sagemayi (尉遲薩格瑪依) 999
البوذية
الحياة الاجتماعية والاقتصادية
اليشم
Khotan, throughout and before the Silk Roads period, was a prominent trading oasis on the southern route of the Tarim Basin – the only major oasis "on the sole water course to cross the desert from the south". Aside from the geographical location of the towns of Khotan it was also important for its wide renown as a significant source of nephrite jade for export to China.
See also
- Khatana
- Hotan
- Rawak Stupa
- Dandan Oilik
- Yuezhi
- Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
- Tarim mummies
- Kamsabhoga
Notes
References
Book references
- ^ Stein, M. Aurel (1907). Ancient Khotan. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- ^ Charles Higham (2004). . Facts on File. p. 143. ISBN .
- ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>
غير سليم؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةMallory 2000
- ^ Rhie, Marylin Martin (2007), Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 1 Later Han, Three Kingdoms and Western Chin in China and Bactria to Shan-shan in Central Asia, Leiden: Brill. p. 254.
- ^ Valerie Hansen (17 July 2012). . Oxford University Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN .
- ^ Takao Moriyasu (2004). . Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN ., p 207
- ^ Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute (1980). . Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute., p. 160
- ^ Johan Elverskog (6 June 2011). . University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 94. ISBN .
- ^ Anna Akasoy; Charles S. F. Burnett; Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim (2011). . Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 295–. ISBN .
- ^ Dankoff, Robert (2008). . Isis Press. ISBN ., p. 35
- ^ http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/17_781-2049-1-PB.pdf
- ^ Scott Cameron Levi; Ron Sela (2010). . Indiana University Press. pp. 72–. ISBN .
- ^ Akiner (28 October 2013). . Routledge. pp. 71–. ISBN .
- ^ J.M. Dent (1908), "Chapter 33: Of the City of Khotan - Which is Supplied with All the Necessaries of Life", The travels of Marco Polo the Venetian, pp. 96–97
- ^ Wood, Frances (2002). . p. 18. ISBN .
- ^ Whitfield, Susan (1999). Life Along the Silk Road. London. p. 24.
Web-references
- ^ "Archaeological GIS and Oasis Geography in the Tarim Basin". The Silk Road Foundation Newsletter. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 21 July 2007.
- ^ "The Sakan Language". The Linguist. Retrieved 2 August 2007.
- ^ The Buddhism of Khotan
Sources
- Histoire de la ville de Khotan: tirée des annales de la chine et traduite du chinois ; Suivie de Recherches sur la substance minérale appelée par les Chinois PIERRE DE IU, et sur le Jaspe des anciens. Abel Rémusat. Paris. L’imprimerie de doublet. 1820. Downloadable from: [1]
- Bailey, H. W. (1961). Indo-Scythian Studies being Khotanese Texts. Volume IV. Translated and edited by H. W. Bailey. Indo-Scythian Studies, Cambridge, The University Press. 1961.
- Bailey, H. W. (1979). Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-14250-2.
- Beal, Samuel. 1884. Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
- Beal, Samuel. 1911. The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
- Emmerick, R. E. 1967. Tibetan Texts Concerning Khotan. Oxford University Press, London.
- Emmerick, R. E. 1979. Guide to the Literature of Khotan. Reiyukai Library, Tokyo.
- Grousset, Rene. 1970. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Trans. by Naomi Walford. New Brunswick, New Jersey. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9
- Hill, John E. July, 1988. "Notes on the Dating of Khotanese History." Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 31, No. 3. See: [2] for paid copy of original version. Updated version of this article is available for free download (with registration) at: [3]
- Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. [4]
- Hill, John E. (2009), Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE, Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge, ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1
- Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1965.
- Mukerjee, Radhakamal (1964), The flowering of Indian art: the growth and spread of a civilization, Asia Pub. House
- Sinha, Bindeshwari Prasad (1974), Comprehensive history of Bihar, Volume 1, Deel 2, Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute
- Sims-Williams, Ursula. 'The Kingdom of Khotan to AD 1000: A Meeting of Cultres.' Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology ثلاثة (2008).
- Watters, Thomas (1904–1905). On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India. London. Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint: 1973.
- Whitfield, Susan. The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. London. The British Library 2004.
- Williams, Joanna. 'Iconography of Khotanese Painting'. East & West (Rome) XXIII (1973), 109-54.
- R. E. Emmerick. 'Tibetan texts concerning Khotan'. London, New York [etc.] Oxford U.P. 1967.
للاستزادة
- Hill, John E. (2003). Draft version of: "The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. 2nd Edition." "Appendix A: The Introduction of Silk Cultivation to Khotan in the 1st Century CE." [5]
- Martini, G. (2011). "Mahāmaitrī in a Mahāyāna Sūtra in Khotanese - Continuity and Innovation in Buddhist Meditation", Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal 24: 121-194. ISSN 1017-7132. [6]
- , London, Hurst and Blackett, Ltd. Reprint Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 2000 Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan : vol.1
- , 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford.Ancient Khotan : vol.1 Ancient Khotan : vol.2
وصلات خارجية
- THE SPREAD OF INDIAN ART AND CULTURE TO CENTRAL ASIA AND CHINA
- ZENO coins page on Khotan
- Discussion on Sulekha.com[]
- Smallest ancient temple discovered
نطقب:Historical polities in Xinjiang
- ^ M. A. Stein – Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books at dsr.nii.ac.jp