قوانين الأراضي والأملاك في إسرائيل Land and property laws in Israel، هوالإطار القانوني الذي يحكم بموجبه في قضايا الأراضي والأملاك. اتىت إسرائيل إلى الوجود في 14 مايو1948 باعلان استقلالها. أول تشريع يصدره مجلس الدولة الانتنطقي كان "مرسوم القانون والادارة لعام 1948"، قانون وضعي. هذا التشريع تبنى جميع القوانين القائمة "بالتعديلات التي قد ينجم عنها تأسيس الدولة أوسلطاتها". فيما يتعلق بقضايا قانون الأراضي، القوانين العثمانية، التي تم تعديلها بقانون الأراضي البريطاني في فترة الانتداب، استمر تطبيقها. بمرور الوقت، بعض هذه القوانين تم تعديلها أوإستبدالها.

نظرة عامة

عام 1945، 26.4 مليون دونم (26.400 كم²) من الأراضي داخل فلسطين تحت الانتداب، 12.8 مليون كانت ملكاً للعرب، 1.5 مليون كانت ملكاً لليهود، 1.5 مليون كانت ملكية عامة، و10.6 مليون كانت تشكل أراضي بئر سبع الصحراوية (النقب). 9.2 مليون دونم من الأراضي كانت صالحة للزراعة، 7.8 مليون دونم كانت ملكية للعرب، 1.2 كانت ملكية لليهود، و0.2 مليون كانت ملكية عامة. بحلول عام 1949، فر حوالي 700.000 فلسطيني أوطُردوا من أراضيهم وقراهم. حالياً تسيطر إسرائيل على حوالي 20.5 مليون دونم (حوالي 2.500 كم²) أو78% من الأراضي التي كانت تحت الانتداب البريطاني: 8% (حوالي 1.650 كم²) كانت أراضي خاصة يسيطر عليها اليهود، 6% (حوالي 1,300 كم²) للعرب، والبقية 86% كانت أراضي عامة.

صدرت قوانين الأراضي لإضفاء الشرعية على تغييرات ملكية الأراضي.

عام 2007، هيئة الأراضي الإسرائيلية (تأسست عام 1960) كانت تدير 93% من الأراضي الإسرائيلية والتي تبلغ 19.508 كم ² حسب قوانين وسياسة الأراضي التالية. البقية 7% من الأراضي كانت ملكية خاصة أوتحت حماية المؤسسات الدينية.

• القانون الأساسي: أراضي إسرائيل (1960) يقضي بأن جميع الأراضي التي تملكها دولة إسرائيل ستظل ملكيتها للدولة، ولن تباع حتى تُمنح لأي أحد.
• قانون الأراضي الإسرائيلي (1960) يشرح عدة إستثناءات في القانون الأساسي.
• قانون ادارة الأراضي الإسرائيلي (1960) يصف تفصايل تأسيس وعمل هيئة الأراضي الإسرائيلية.
• الميثاق بين دولة إسرائيل والمنظمة الصهيونية العالمية (أسست الصندوق القومي اليهودي) (1960).

13% من أراضي إسرائيل تخص الصندوق القومي اليهودي، والتي تديرها هيئة الأراضي الإسرائيلية.

استخدام الأراضي في إسرائيل عادة ما يعني حقوق التأجير من هيئة الأراضي الإسرئالية لفترة 49 أو93 سنة. بمقتضى القانون الإسرائيلي، لا يمكن لهيئة الأراضي الإسرائيلية تأجير الأراضي لمواطنين أجانب، ويضم ذلك الفلسطينيين المقيمين في القدس الذين يحملون بطاقات هوية لكنهم ليسوا مواطنين إسرائيليين. عملياً يسمح للأجانب بالتأجير إذا أظهروا أنهم يمكن حتى يكافئوا اليهود بموجب قانون العودة.

التاريخ

الفترة العثمانية

الانتداب البريطاني

دولة إسرائيل

قوانين الطوارئ

الإعلان، 5708-1948

مرسوم القانون والادارة، 5708-1948

مرسوم منطقة الولاية القضائية والسلطات، 5708-1948

مرسوم المناطق المهجورة، 5708-1948

قوانين الدفاع (الطوارئ)

المادة 125

قوانين الطوارئ (مناطق الأمن)، 5709-1949

قوانين الطوارئ (النفايات الزراعية)، 5709-1949

قانون الطوارئ لصادرة الأراضي، 5710-1949

'قانون الغائب الحاضر'

قوانين أملاك الغائبين كانت عدة قوانين طُرحت لأول مرة كمراسيم طوارئ صدرت من قبل القادة اليهود والتي تم إدماجها بعد الحرب في قوانين إسرائيل. كمثال لأول أنواع القوانين، قانون تنظيمات الطوارئ للغائبين، 5709-1948 (ديسمبر) والذي حسب المادة 37 من قانون أملاك الغائبين، 5710-1950 تم إستبداله بالتالي؛قانون تنظيمات الطوارئ (مصادرة الأملاك)، 5709-1949، وقانونين أخرى متعلقة.

حسب قانون تنظيمات الطوائر وقانون مصادرة أملاك الغائبين (المادة 41)، على عكس القوانين الأخرى التي تم وضعها لتأسيس السيطرة القضائية الإسرائيلية على الأراضي، فهذا القانون يركز على صياغة تعريف قانوني للأشخاص (معظمهم عرب) الذين هجروا أوأُجبروا على الفرار من أراضيهم. القوانين المحددة في هذا التصنيف تضم قانون:

• قانون أملاك الغائبين، 5710- 1950
• قانون الإستيلاء على الأراضي (التحقق من صحة الأعمال والتعويضات)، 5713-1953
• قانون أملاك الغائبين (الطرد)، 5718-1958
• قانون أملاك الغائبين (التعديل رقم 3) (التنازل واستخدام أملاك الوقف)، 5725-1965
• قانون أملاك الغائبين (التعديل رقم 4) (التنازل واستخدام أملاك الكنيسة الإنجيلية الأسقفية)، 5727-1967
• قانون أملاك الغائبين (التعويضات)، 5733-1973

نتيجة لتلك القوانين، صودرت 2 مليون دونم أومنحت للوصي، الذي نقل فيما بعد الأراضي إلى هيئة التنمية. هذا القانون أسس تصنيف مواطنة جديدة، "الغائب الحاضر" (nifkadim nohahim)، الشخص الحاضر في هذا الوقت لكنه يعتبر غائباً بموجب القانون. العرب الإسرائيليون هؤلاء يتمتعون بجميع الحقوق المدنية - وتضم حق التصويت في انتخابات الكنيست - عدما حقاً واحداً: حق استخدام أوالتصرف في ممتلكاتهم. حوالي 30.000 إلى 35.000 فلسطيني أصبحوا "غائبون حاضرون".

حسب فلاپان، الذي قدم "وصفاً مفصلاً لكيفية مساهمة أملاك العرب المهجورة في إستيعاب المهاجرين الجدد والتي أعدت بواسطة جوسف ششتمان:

من الصعب حتى نبالغ في تقدير الدور الضخم لأملاك العرب المهجورة، والذي لعبته في تطوين مئات الآلاف من المهاجرين اليهود الذين وصلوا لإسرائيل منذ إعلان قيام الدولة في مايو1948. تأسست 47 مستوطنة ريفية جديدة على جوانب القرى العربية المهجورة في أكتوبر 1949 وبالعمل تم إستيعاب 25.255 مهاجر جديد. بحلول ربيع 1950 قام الوصي بتأجير مليون دونم للمستوطنات اليهودية وللفلاحين لزيادة إنتاج الحبوب.

مساحات كبيرة من الأراضي المملوكة للغائبين العرب تم تأجيرها للمستوطنين اليهود، القدامى والجدد، لزراعة الخضروات. في الجنوب وحده، 15.000 دونم من الكروم وأشجار الفاكهة تم تأجيرها للمستوطنات التعاونية؛ تم تأجيرها للجمعية اليمنية، جمعية مزارعين، ومستوطنة جنود ومجلس إعادة التأهيل. وفر هذا للوكالة اليهودية والحكومة ملايين الدولارات. في الوقت الذي تبلغ فيه نفقات تأسيس عائلة مهاجرة في مستوطنة جديدة من 7.500 إلى 9.000 دولار، فتكلفة القرى العربية المهجورة لا تتعدى 1.500 دولار (750 دولار لإصلاحات البناء و750 دولار للماشية والمعدات).

القرى العربية المهجورة في البلدات لم تهجر فارغة أيضاً. بنهاية يوليو1948، 170.000 شخص، معظمهم من المهاجرين الجدد والجنود المتقاعدين، بالإضافة إلى حوالي 40.000 مزارع مستأجر، من اليهود والعرب، تم إسكانها في مباني تحت ادارة الوصي؛ و7.000 متجر، ورشة ومخزن تم تأجيرها من الباطن للقادمين الجدد. وجود مساكن العرب الفارغة والجاهزة للسكان، حلت معضلة ملحة قابلتها السلطات الإسرائيلية. كذلك أزاحت عبئاً مالياً كبيراً من على كاهل الحكومة لاستيعاب المهاجرين الجدد.

How much of Israel's territory consists of land confiscated with the Absentee Property Law is uncertain and much disputed. Robert Fisk interviewed the Israeli Custodian of Absentee Property, who estimates this could amount to up to 70% of the territory of Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip:

The Custodian of Absentee Property does not choose to discuss politics. But when asked how much of the land of the state of Israel might potentially have two claimants — an Arab and a Jew holding respectively a British Mandate and an Israeli deed to the same property — Mr. Manor [the Custodian in 1980] believes that 'about 70 percent' might fall into that category (Robert Fisk, 'The Land of Palestine, Part Eight: The Custodian of Absentee Property', The Times, December 24, 1980, quoted in his book Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War).

The Jewish Virtual Library, estimates that Custodial and Absentee land comprises 12% of Israel's total territory.

The Jewish National Fund, from Jewish Villages in Israel, 1949:

Of the entire area of the State of Israel only about 300,000-400,000 dunums -- apart from the desolate rocky area of the southern Negev, at present quite unfit for cultivation -- are State Domain which the Israeli Government took over from the Mandatory regime. The J.N.F. and private Jewish owners possess under two million dunums. Almost all the rest belongs at law to Arab owners, many of whom have left the country. The fate of these Arabs will be settled when the terms of the peace treaties between Israel and her Arab neighbours are finally drawn up. The J.N.F., however, cannot wait until then to obtain the land it requires for its pressing needs. It is, therefore, acquiring part of the land abandoned by the Arab owners, through the Government of Israel, the sovereign authority in Israel. Whatever the ultimate fate of the Arabs concerned, it is manifest that their legal right to their land and property in Israel, or to the monetary value of them, will not be waived, nor do the Jews wish to ignore them. ... [C]onquest by force of arms cannot, in law or in ethics, abrogate the rights of the legal owner to his personal property. The J.N.F., therefore, will pay for the lands it takes over, at a fixed and fair price.

The absentee property played an enormous role in making Israel a viable state. In 1954, more than one third of Israel's Jewish population lived on absentee property and nearly a third of the new immigrants (250,000 people) settled in urban areas abandoned by Arabs. Of 370 new Jewish settlements established between 1948 and 1953, 350 were on absentee property (Peretz, Israel and the Palestinian Arabs, 1958).

قانون أملاك الحاضرين الغائبين 5710- 1950

This law replaced the Emergency Regulations (Absentees’ Property) Law, 5709-1948. According to Jiryis (p. 84), the definition of "absentee" in the law was framed in such a way as to ensure that it applied to every Palestinian or resident in Palestine who had left his usual place of residence in Palestine for any place inside or outside the country after the adoption of the partition of Palestine resolution by the UN. Article 1(b) states that "absentee" means:

"absentee" means -
(1) a person who, at any time during the period between the 16th Kislev, 5708 (29th November, 1947) and the day on which a declaration is published, under section 9(d) of the Law and Administration Ordinance, 5708-1948(1), that the state of emergency declared by the Provisional Council of State on the 10th Iyar, 5708 (19th May, 1948)
(2) has ceased to exist, was a legal owner of any property situated in the area of Israel or enjoyed or held it, whether by himself or through another, and who, at any time during the said period -

(i) was a national or citizen of the Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, SaudiArabia, Trans-Jordan, Iraq or the Yemen, or

(ii) was in one of these countries or in any part of Palestine outside the area of Israel, or

(iii) was a Palestinian citizen and left his ordinary place of residence in Palestine

(a) for a place outside Palestine before the 27th Av, 5708 (1st September, 1948); or

(b) for a place in Palestine held at the time by forces which sought to prevent the establishment of the State of Israel or which fought against it after its establishment;

(2) a body of persons which, at any time during the period specified in paragraph (1), was a legal owner of any property situated in the area of Israel or enjoyed or held such property, whether by itself or through another, and all the members, partners, shareholders, directors or managers of which are absentees within the meaning of paragraph (1), or the management of the business of which is otherwise decisively controlled by such absentees, or all the capital of which is in the hands of such absentees;

According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 41), the provisions in the law made sure that the term 'person' did not apply to Jews. The law also applied to Arabs who had become citizens of the State of Israel but were not in their usual place of residence as defined by the law. In this case, they were referred to as 'present absentees' and many lost their lands.

The Law then appointed a Custodianship Council for Absentees' Property, whose president was to be known as the Custodian of Absentees' Property (Article 2). The law then made these properties the legal holdings of the Custodian. According to Art. 4.(a)(2):

every right an absentee had in any property shall pass automatically to the Custodian at the time of the vesting of the property; and the status of the Custodian shall be the same as was that of the owner of the property.

According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 41), those who were found to occupy property in violation of this law could be expelled, and those who built on such property could have their structures demolished. The law came to apply not only to Palestinians who fled but also to those who were away from their regular places of residence (as described in the previous paragraph).

According to the Israel Government Yearbook, 5719 (1958) (p. 235), the "village properties" of absentee Arabs "which was appropriated by the Custodian of Absentees' Property" included "[the land of] some 350 completely abandoned or semi-abandoned [Arab] villages, the aggregate area of which was about three-quarters of a million dunums .... Among the agricultural properties were 80,000 dunums of abandoned groves... [and] more than 200,000 dunums of plantations were taken over by the custodian. "It was estimated that "the urban properties ... include[d] 25,416 buildings in which there are 57,497 dwellings and 10,727 business and trade premises."

According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 41), "estimates of the total amount of ‘abandoned’ lands to which Israel laid claim vary between 4.2 and 5.8 million dunum (4 200-5 800 km²). Between 1948 and 1953 alone, 350 of the 370 new Jewish settlements were created on lands confiscated under the Absentees’ Property Law."

The Absentees’ Property Law underwent several amendments, including:

• The Absentees’ Property (Amendment) Law, 5711-1951[2],
• The Absentees’ Property (Amendment) Law, 5716-1956[3].

Both amendments clarifying rental arrangements and tenant protection rights on such property.

• The Absentees’ Property (Amendment No. 5) (Increase of Payment to Absentees’ Dependants and to Absentees) Law, 5727-1967[4] and subsequent amendments to the latter.

قانون ضم الأراضي (التحقق من صحة الأعمال والتعويضات)، 5713-1953

According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 42), the Government of Israel did not automatically gain title to lands seized under the Absentees’ Property Law. This was accomplished under the Land Acquisition (Validation of Acts and Compensation) Law, 5713-1953. This law legalised expropriations (retroactively in many cases) for military purposes or for the establishment of (Jewish) settlements.

The law allows the Government to claim the property of lands which are not in the possession of its owner as of 1 April 1952. Article 2 (a) states:

Property in respect of which the Minister certifies by certificate under his hand--

(1) that on the 6th Nisan, 5712 (1st April, 1952) it was not in the possession of its owners; and

(2) that within the period between the 5th Iyar, 5708 (14th May, 1948) and the 6th Nisan, 5712 (Ist April 1952) it was used or assigned for purposes of essential development, settlement or security; and

(3) that it is still required for any of these purposes

The further states the monetary compensation for those losing their lands and that in the case were the lands corresponded to agricultural lands, where those lands formed their main source of livelihood, lands elsewhere would be offered. Article ثلاثة reads:

(a) The owners of acquired property are entitled to compensation therefore from the Development Authority. The compensation shall be given in money, unless otherwise agreed between the owners and the Development Authority. The amount of compensation shall be fixed by agreement between the Development Authority and the owners or, in the absence of agreement, by the Court, as hereinafter provided.

(b) Where the acquired property was used for agriculture and was the main source of livelihood of its owner, and he has no other land sufficient for his livelihood, the Development Authority shall, on his demand, offer him other property, either for ownership or for lease, as full or partial compensation. A competent authority, to be appointed for this purpose by the Minister, shall, in accordance with rules to be prescribed by regulations, determine the category, location, area, and, in the case of lease, period of lease (not less than 49 years) and the value of the offered property, both for the purpose of calculating the compensation and for determination of the sufficiency of such property for a livelihood.
(c) The provisions of subsection (b) shall add to, and not derogate from, the provisions of subsection (a).

According to Kedar (p. 153), until 1959, compensation was calculated on the basis of the 1950 land values. The author cites a 1965 ILA report which shows that over 1.2 million dunum (about 1 200 km²) of Arab land were taken in this manner.

قانون ممتلكات الغائب الحاضر (التعديل رقم.3) (هجر واستخدام الأملاك الموقوفة)، 5725-1965[5]

This law extends the scope of the Absentees’ Property Law and earlier regulations concerning the Muslim religious endowment, the Waqf. Article 29A (c) states:

For the purposes of this section and of sections 29B to 29H, "endowment property" means Muslim waqf property being immovable property validly dedicated.

According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 41), it allows the Government to confiscate vast amounts of Muslim (charity) land and other properties, including cemeteries and mosques, and place them under Government administration. According to the law, income from these properties would be used in part to build institutions and provide services for the Muslim inhabitants in areas where such property is located. The law amends the 1950 law in the following way:

In section أربعة of the Absentees' Property Law, 5710-1950(1) (hereinafter referred to as "the principal Law"), the following subsection shall be inserted after subsection (a):

(1) Where any property is an endowment under any law, the ownership thereof shall vest in the Custodian free from any restriction, qualification or other similar limitation prescribed, whether before or after the vesting, by or under any law or document relating to the endowment if the owner of the property, or the person having possession or the right of management of the property, or the beneficiary of the endowment, is an absentee. The vesting shall be as from the 10th Kislev, 5709 (12th December, 1948) or from the day on which one of the aforementioned becomes an absentee, whichever is the later date.

(2) The provisions of this subsection shall not void any restriction, qualification or other similar limitation prescribed by or under this Law or imposed by the Custodian and shall not void any transactions effected by him.".

(b) This section shall have effect retroactively as from the date of the coming into force of the principal Law.

According to Benvenisti:

"Most Waqf property in Israel was expropriated under the Absentee proberty Law (giving rise to the sarcastic quip -"Apparently God is an absentee [in Israel]") and afterward handed over to the Development Authority, ostensibly because this was necessary to prevent its being neglected, but actually so as to make it possible to sell it. Only about one-third of Muslim Waqf property, principally mosques and graveyards that were currently in use, was not expropriated. In 1956 its administration was turned over to the Board of Trustees of the Muslim Waqf, which by then was made up of collaborators appointed by the authorities. These "trustees" would sell or "exchange" land with the ILA without any accountability to the Muslim community. Anger over these deeds led to acts of violence within the community, including assassinations.".

قانون أملاك الغائبين (التعويض)، 5733-1973[6]

This law establishes the procedure to compensate owners of lands which have been confiscated under the Absentees’ Property Law (1950). It establishes the requirements to be eligible for compensation (Article 1):

The persons entitled to compensation are all those who were Israel residents on 1 July 1973, or became residents thereafter, and prior to the property becoming vested in the Custodian of Absentees' Property were

1.the owners of property, including their heirs, or

2.the tenants only of urban property, including spouses living with them at the last mentioned date, or

3.the lessees of property, or

4.the owners of any easement in property.

Other provisions specify the time limit legally allowed for filing a claim, whether compensation would be awarded in cash or bonds (depending on circumstances), the payment schedule (generally over a fifteen-year period) and other provisions. Appended to the law is a detailed schedule of how compensation is to be calculated for each type of property, urban or agricultural. Some provisions of this law were amended in later years.

قوانين سنت لإضفاء المزيد من الشرعية للإستيلاء على الأراضي المهجرة، وقوانين متعلقة

مرسوم الأراضي (الاستيلاء على الممتلكات العامة) (1943)

مرسوم الحكومة العسكرية بالقدس (التحقق من صحة الأعمال)، 5709-1949

قانون سلطة التنمية (نقل الأملاك)، 5710-1950[7]

قانون حق التقادم، 5718-1958[8]

انظر أيضاً

• النكبة الفلسطينية
• قائمة البلدات والقرى العربية المهجرة أثناء حرب 1948
• لجنة الترحيل
• قانون إسرائيلي
• القوانين الأساسية في إسرائيل
• ادارة الأراضي الإسرائيلية
• هيئة الأراضي الإسرائيلية
• قوانين الأراضي الفلسطينية
• الخربة

المصادر

وصلات خارجية

Adalah: Interactive Map of Land Expropriation