نظرية الخلق
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سلسلة منطقات حول نظرية الخلق | |
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تاريخ نظرية الخلق | |
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مذاهب الخلق : | |
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نظريات فهمية متعلقة بالموضوع: | |
نظرية الخلق (خلق السموات والأرض) creationism هوالمعتقد المشهجر بين جميع الديانات الإبراهيمية بأن الإنسان والحياة والأرض والكون أيضا نشأ نتيجة تدخل وإبداع رباني إلهي من قبل ذات فوق-طبيعية تدعى الله. هذا التدخل الإلهي يمكن انقد يكون خلقا مباشرا من عدم (ex nihilo) أوانبثاق للنظام والترتيب من شواش بدائي (demiurge) كما تنص بعض الأساطير اليونانية . يعتبر معظم المؤمنون في الدينات السماوية ان نظرية الخلق لا تتعارض مع الحقائق الفهمية .
تتعارض هذه النظرة الدينية مع نظرة أخرى لتفسير الأمور والظواهر في سياق الفهم تدعى الطبيعية التي تحاول ان تنظر للأمور في سياق مادي أوإلحادي دون أي اعتبار لوجود للنظرة الدينية أوالروحانية.
الأنواع
The main general types are listed below.
| Humanity | Biological species | Earth | Age of Universe | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Young Earth creationism | Directly created by God. | Directly created by God. Macroevolution does not occur. | Less than 10,000 years old. Reshaped by global flood. | Less than 10,000 years old, but some hold this view only for our Solar System. |
| Gap creationism | Scientifically accepted age. Reshaped by global flood. | Scientifically accepted age. | ||
| Progressive creationism | Directly created by God, based on primate anatomy. | Direct creation + evolution. No single common ancestor. | Scientifically accepted age. No global flood. | Scientifically accepted age. |
| Intelligent design | Proponents hold various beliefs. (For example, Michael Behe accepts evolution from primates.) | Divine intervention at some point in the past, as evidenced by what intelligent-design creationists call "irreducible complexity." | Some adherents accept common descent, others not. Some claim the existence of Earth is the result of divine intervention. | Scientifically accepted age. |
| Theistic evolution (evolutionary creationism) | Evolution from primates. | Evolution from single common ancestor. | Scientifically accepted age. No global flood. | Scientifically accepted age. |
Young Earth creationism
Old Earth creationism
Old Earth creationism holds that the physical universe was created by God, but that the creation event described in the Book of Genesis is to be taken figuratively. This group generally believes that the age of the universe and the age of the Earth are as described by astronomers and geologists, but that details of modern evolutionary theory are questionable.
Old Earth creationism itself comes in at least three types:
Gap creationism
Day-age creationism
Day-age creationism states that the "six days" of the Book of Genesis are not ordinary 24-hour days, but rather much longer periods (for instance, each "day" could be the equivalent of millions, or billions of years of human time). The physicist Gerald Schroeder is one such proponent of this view. This version of creationism often states that the Hebrew word "yôm," in the context of Genesis 1, can be properly interpreted as "age."
Progressive creationism
Progressive creationism holds that species have changed or evolved in a process continuously guided by God, with various ideas as to how the process operated—though it is generally taken that God directly intervened in the natural order at key moments in Earth history. This view accepts most of modern physical science including the age of the Earth, but rejects much of modern evolutionary biology or looks to it for evidence that evolution by natural selection alone is incorrect.[] Organizations such as Reasons To Believe, founded by Hugh Ross, promote this version of creationism.
Progressive creationism can be held in conjunction with hermeneutic approaches to the Genesis creation narrative such as the day-age creationism or framework/metaphoric/poetic views.
Philosophic and scientific creationism
Creation science
Neo-creationism
Intelligent design
Intelligent design (ID) is the pseudoscientific view that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection."
Geocentrism
Omphalos hypothesis
Religious views
Islam
Islamic creationism is the belief that the universe (including humanity) was directly created by God as explained in the Qur'an. It usually views the Book of Genesis as a corrupted version of God's message. The creation myths in the Qur'an are vaguer and allow for a wider range of interpretations similar to those in other Abrahamic religions.
Bahá'í Faith
Christianity
Hinduism
Hindu creationists claim that species of plants and animals are material forms adopted by pure consciousness which live an endless cycle of births and rebirths.Ronald Numbers says that: "Hindu Creationists have insisted on the antiquity of humans, who they believe appeared fully formed as long, perhaps, as trillions of years ago." Hindu creationism is a form of old Earth creationism, according to Hindu creationists the universe may even be older than billions of years. These views are based on the Vedas, the creation myths of which depict an extreme antiquity of the universe and history of the Earth.
Judaism
For Orthodox Jews who seek to reconcile discrepancies between science and the creation myths in the Bible, the notion that science and the Bible should even be reconciled through traditional scientific means is questioned. To these groups, science is as true as the Torah and if there seems to be a problem, epistemological limits are to blame for apparently irreconcilable points. They point to discrepancies between what is expected and what actually is to demonstrate that things are not always as they appear. They note that even the root word for "world" in the Hebrew language—עולם (Olam)—means hidden—נעלם (Neh-Eh-Lahm). Just as they know from the Torah that God created man and trees and the light on its way from the stars in their observed state, so too can they know that the world was created in its over the six days of Creation that reflects progression to its currently-observed state, with the understanding that physical ways to verify this may eventually be identified. This knowledge has been advanced by Rabbi Dovid Gottlieb, former philosophy professor at Johns Hopkins University.[] Also, relatively old Kabbalistic sources from well before the scientifically apparent age of the universe was first determined are in close concord with modern scientific estimates of the age of the universe, according to Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, and based on Sefer Temunah, an early kabbalistic work attributed to the first-century Tanna Nehunya ben HaKanah. Many kabbalists accepted the teachings of the Sefer HaTemunah, including the medieval Jewish scholar Nahmanides, his close student Isaac ben Samuel of Acre, and David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra. Other parallels are derived, among other sources, from Nahmanides, who expounds that there was a Neanderthal-like species with which Adam mated (he did this long before Neanderthals had even been discovered scientifically).Reform Judaism does not take the Torah as a literal text, but rather as a symbolic or open-ended work.
Prevalence
Most vocal literalist creationists are from the US, and strict creationist views are much less common in other developed countries. According to a study published in Science, a survey of the US, Turkey, Japan and Europe showed that public acceptance of evolution is most prevalent in Iceland, Denmark and Sweden at 80% of the population. There seems to be no significant correlation between believing in evolution and understanding evolutionary science.
United States
Education controversies
In the US, creationism has become centered in the political controversy over creation and evolution in public education, and whether teaching creationism in science classes conflicts with the separation of church and state. Currently, the controversy comes in the form of whether advocates of the intelligent design movement who wish to "Teach the Controversy" in science classes have conflated science with religion.
People for the American Way polled 1500 North Americans about the teaching of evolution and creationism in November and December 1999. They found that most North Americans were not familiar with Creationism, and most North Americans had heard of evolution, but many did not fully understand the basics of the theory. The main findings were:
Criticism
Christian criticism
Most Christians disagree with the teaching of creationism as an alternative to evolution in schools.
Scientific criticism
Science is a system of knowledge based on observation, empirical evidence, and the development of theories that yield testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena. By contrast, creationism is often based on literal interpretations of the narratives of particular religious texts. Creationist beliefs involve purported forces that lie outside of nature, such as supernatural intervention, and often do not allow predictions at all. Therefore, these can neither be confirmed nor disproved by scientists. However, many creationist beliefs can be framed as testable predictions about phenomena such as the age of the Earth, its geological history and the origins, distributions and relationships of living organisms found on it. Early science incorporated elements of these beliefs, but as science developed these beliefs were gradually falsified and were replaced with understandings based on accumulated and reproducible evidence that often allows the accurate prediction of future results.
Organizations
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See also
- Biblical inerrancy
- Biogenesis
- Evolution of complexity
- Flying Spaghetti Monster
- History of creationism
- Religious cosmology
- Human timeline
- Life timeline
- Nature timeline
Footnotes
Notes
- ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير سليم؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةScott1999 - ^ Boudry, Maarten; Blancke, Stefaan; Braeckman, Johan (December 2010). "Irreducible Incoherence and Intelligent Design: A Look into the Conceptual Toolbox of a Pseudoscience" (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Biology. 85 (4): 473–82. doi:10.1086/656904. hdl:1854/LU-952482. PMID 21243965. Article available from Universiteit Gent
- ^ Pigliucci, Massimo (2010). "Science in the Courtroom: The Case against Intelligent Design" (PDF). Nonsense on Stilts: How to Tell Science from Bunk. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 160–86. ISBN . LCCN 2009049778. OCLC 457149439.
- ^ "Top Questions: Questions About Intelligent Design: What is the theory of intelligent design?". Center for Science and Culture. Seattle, WA: Discovery Institute. Retrieved 2007-05-13.
-
^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير سليم؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةnytimes.com - ^ McGrath 2010, p. 140
- ^ Numbers 2006, p. 420
- ^ Carper & Hunt 2009, p. 167
- ^ Dasgupta 1922, p. 10
- ^ Aviezer 1990
- ^ Carmell & Domb 1976
- ^ Schroeder 1998
- ^ Tigay, Jeffrey H. (Winter 1987–1988). ". Conservative Judaism. 40 (2): 20–27. ISSN 0010-6542. Retrieved 2014-03-21.
- ^ Le Page, Michael (April 19, 2008). "Evolution myths: It doesn't matter if people don't grasp evolution". New Scientist. 198 (2652): 31. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(08)60984-7. ISSN 0262-4079. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
- ^ Hecht, Jeff (August 19, 2006). "Why doesn't America believe in evolution?". New Scientist. 191 (2565): 11. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(06)60136-X. ISSN 0262-4079. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
-
^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير سليم؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةScience survey - ^ Kahan, Dan (May 24, 2014). "Weekend update: You'd have to be science illiterate to think 'belief in evolution' measures science literacy". Cultural Cognition Project (Blog). New Haven, CT: Yale Law School. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
- ^ Shtulman, Andrew (March 2006). "Qualitative differences between naïve and scientific theories of evolution". Cognitive Psychology. 52 (2): 170–94. Bibcode:1992CogPs..24..535V. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2005.10.001. ISSN 0010-0285. PMID 16337619.
-
^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير سليم؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةkitz -
^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم
<ref>غير سليم؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماةpfaw - ^ van Harn, Roger; Ford, David F.; Gunton, Colin E. (2004). . A&C Black. p. 44. ISBN . Extract of page 44
- ^ Ra, Aron (2016). . Pitchstone Publishing. p. 182. ISBN . Extract of page 182
- ^ NAS 2008, p. 12
- ^ NAS 2008, p. 10, "In science, explanations must be based on naturally occurring phenomena. Natural causes are, in principle, reproducible and therefore can be checked independently by others. If explanations are based on purported forces that are outside of nature, scientists have no way of either confirming or disproving those explanations."
- ^ Isaak, Mark, ed. (2006). "An Index to Creationist Claims". TalkOrigins Archive. Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
- ^ Futuyma 2005
- ^ "About Old Earth Ministries?". Old Earth Ministries. Springfield, OH: Old Earth Ministries. Retrieved 2014-03-09.
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- Stewart, Melville Y., ed. (2010). Science and Religion in Dialogue. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN . LCCN 2009032180. OCLC 430678957.
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- Young, Davis A. (1995). The Biblical Flood: A Case Study of the Church's Response to Extrabiblical Evidence. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN . LCCN 95001899. OCLC 246813515.
Further reading
- Anderson, Bernard W. (1967). Creation versus Chaos: The Reinterpretation of Mythical Symbolism in the Bible. New York: Association Press. LCCN 67014578. OCLC 671184.
- Anderson, Bernhard W., ed. (1984). Creation in the Old Testament. Issues in Religion and Theology. 6. Introduction by Bernhard W. Anderson. Philadelphia; London: Fortress Press; Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. ISBN . LCCN 83048910. OCLC 10374840.
- Barbour, Ian G. (1997). Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues (1st HarperCollins revised ed.). San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN . LCCN 97006294. OCLC 36417827.
- Barbour, Ian G. (2000). (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN . LCCN 99055579. OCLC 42752713.
- Clark, Kelly James (2014). Religion and the Sciences of Origins: Historical and Contemporary Discussions (1st ed.). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN . LCCN 2014466739. OCLC 889777438.
- Darwin, Charles (1958). Barlow, Nora (ed.). . London: Collins. LCCN 93017940. OCLC 869541868. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
- Kaplan, Aryeh (1993). Immortality, Resurrection, and the Age of the Universe: A Kabbalistic View. With an appendix Derush Or ha-Hayyim by Israel Lipschitz; translated and annotated by Yaakov Elman. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Publishing House in association with the Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists. ISBN . LCCN 92036917. OCLC 26800167.
- Kauffman, Stuart A. (2008). . New York: Basic Books. ISBN . LCCN 2007052263. OCLC 191023778.
- Leeming, David Adams; Leeming, Margaret (1995). . New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN . LCCN 95039961. OCLC 33160980.
- Primack, Joel R.; Abrams, Nancy Ellen (Jan–Feb 1995). "In a Beginning...: Quantum Cosmology and Kabbalah" (PDF). Tikkun. 10 (1): 66–73. ISSN 0887-9982. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
- Roberts, Michael (2008). Evangelicals and Science. Greenwood Guides to Science and Religion. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN . LCCN 2007041059. OCLC 174138819.
External links
 |
مشاع الفهم فيه ميديا متعلقة بموضوع Creationism. |
- "Creationism" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Michael Ruse
- "How Creationism Works" at HowStuffWorks by Julia Layton
- "TIMELINE: Evolution, Creationism and Intelligent Design" – Focuses on major historical and recent events in the scientific and political debate
- "Evolution and Creationism: A Guide for Museum Docents" (PDF). (204 KB) by Warren D. Allmon, Director of the Museum of the Earth
- "What is creationism?" at talk.origins by Mark Isaak
- "The Creation/Evolution Continuum" by Eugenie Scott
- "15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense" by John Rennie, editor in chief of Scientific American magazine
- Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)
نطقب:Creationism topics
