تصفية الاستعمار في أفريقيا

decolonisation of Africa followed World War II, when colonised people agitated for independence and colonial powers withdrew their administrators from Africa.

Background

Areas of Africa controlled by European colonial powers in 1913, shown along with current national boundaries

██ Belgian	██ Italian
██ British	██ Portuguese
██ French	██ Spanish
██ German	██ Independent

The "Scramble for Africa" between 1870 and 1900 ended with almost all of Africa being controlled by European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible, but wanting to avoid conflict amongst themselves, without regard to local differences leaders divided up the continent, formalising it in the Berlin Agreement in 1885. By 1905, control of almost all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (which had successfully resisted colonisation by Italy).Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor. Progress towards independence was slow up until the mid-20th century. By 1977, 54 African countries had seceded from European colonial rulers.

Timeline

This table is the arranged by the earliest date of independence in this graph; 58 countries have seceded.

Country	Colonial name	Colonial power	Independence date	First head of government	Independence won through
Union of South Africa	Cape Colony Colony of Natal Orange River Colony نطقب:Country data Transvaal Colony Transvaal Colony	المملكة المتحدة	31 May 1910	Louis Botha	South Africa Act 1909
مملكة مصر	Sultanate of Egypt		28 February 1922	Fuad I	Egyptian Revolution of 1919
Emirate of Cyrenaica	British Military Administration		1 March 1949	Idris I	Western Desert Campaign
United Kingdom of Libya	British Military Administration Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames Emirate of Cyrenaica	المملكة المتحدة فرنسا Emirate of Cyrenaica	24 December 1951	Idris I	Western Desert Campaign
Republic of Sudan	Anglo-Egyptian Sudan	المملكة المتحدة Republic of Egypt	1 January 1956	Ismail al-Azhari	Egyptian Revolution of 1952
Kingdom of Tunisia	French Protectorate of Tunisia	فرنسا	20 March 1956	Muhammad VIII al-Amin Habib Bourguiba	-
المغرب	French Protectorate in Morocco Tangier International Zone Spanish Protectorate in Morocco Spanish West Africa Ifni	فرنسا إسپانيا	2 March 1956 7 April 1956 10 April 1958 4 January 1969	Mohammed V	Ifni War
Ghana	ساحل المضى	المملكة المتحدة	6 March 1957	Kwame Nkrumah	-
غينيا	نطقب:Country data French West Africa	فرنسا	2 October 1958	Sékou Touré	Guinean constitutional referendum, 1958
الكاميرون	French Cameroons British Cameroons	فرنسا المملكة المتحدة	1 January 1960 1 June 1961 1 October 1961	Ahmadou Ahidjo	-
توگو	French Togoland	فرنسا	27 April 1960	Sylvanus Olympio	-
Mali	French West Africa		20 June 1960	Modibo Keita	-
السنغال	French West Africa		20 June 1960	Léopold Senghor	-
Malagasy Republic	French Madagascar		26 June 1960	Philibert Tsiranana
Republic of the Congo	الكونغوالبلجيكي	بلجيكا	30 June 1960	Patrice Lumumba	Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference
Somali Republic	نطقب:Country data British Somaliland Trust Territory of Somaliland	المملكة المتحدة إيطاليا	26 June 1960 1 July 1960	Aden Abdullah Osman Daar	-
Republic of Dahomey	نطقب:Country data French West Africa	فرنسا	1 August 1960	Hubert Maga	-
النيجر			3 August 1960	Hamani Diori	-
ڤولتا العليا			5 August 1960	Maurice Yaméogo	-
ساحل العاج			7 August 1960	Félix Houphouët-Boigny	-
تشاد	نطقب:Country data French Equatorial Africa		11 August 1960	François Tombalbaye	-
جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى			13 August 1960	David Dacko	-
الكونغو			15 August 1960	Fulbert Youlou	-
الگابون			17 August 1960	Léon M'ba	-
نيجريا	Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria British Cameroons	المملكة المتحدة	1 October 1960 1 June 1961 1 October 1961	Nnamdi Azikiwe	-
موريتانيا	نطقب:Country data French Equatorial Africa	فرنسا	28 November 1960	Moktar Ould Daddah	-
سيراليون	Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone	المملكة المتحدة	27 April 1961	Milton Margai	-
تنجانيقا	Tanganyika Territory	المملكة المتحدة	9 December 1961	Julius Nyerere	-
نطقب:Country data Kingdom of Burundi	Ruanda-Urundi	بلجيكا	1 July 1962	Mwambutsa IV of Burundi	-
Republic of Rwanda	Ruanda-Urundi	بلجيكا	1 July 1962	Grégoire Kayibanda	Rwandan Revolution
الجزائر	French Algeria	فرنسا	3 July 1962	Ahmed Ben Bella	Algerian War
Uganda	Protectorate of Uganda	المملكة المتحدة	9 October 1962	Milton Obote	-
Kenya	Colony and Protectorate of Kenya		12 December 1963	Jomo Kenyatta	-
Sultanate of Zanzibar	Sultanate of Zanzibar		10 December 1963	Jamshid bin Abdullah	-
ملاوي	نياسالاند		6 July 1964	Hastings Kamuzu Banda	-
زامبيا	روديسيا الشمالية		24 October 1964	Kenneth Kaunda	-
The Gambia	Gambia Colony and Protectorate		18 February 1965	Dawda Kairaba Jawara	-
روديسيا زيمبابوي	روديسيا الجنوبية		11 November 1965 17 April 1980	Ian Smith Robert Mugabe	Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence Lancaster House Agreement
بتسوانا	Bechuanaland Protectorate		30 September 1966	Seretse Khama	-
Kingdom of Lesotho	Territory of Basutoland		4 October 1966	Leabua Jonathan	-
Mauritius	Mauritius		12 March 1968	Veerasamy Ringadoo	-
سوازيلاند	Swaziland		6 September 1968	Sobhuza II	-
Republic of Equatorial Guinea	Spanish Territories of the Gulf of Guinea	إسپانيا	12 October 1968	Francisco Macías Nguema	-
غينيا-بيساو	Overseas Province of Guinea	الپرتغال	24 September 1973	Luís Cabral	Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
People's Republic of Mozambique	State of Mozambique		25 June 1975	Samora Machel	Mozambican War of Independence
Republic of Cape Verde	Overseas Province of Cape Verde		5 July 1975	Aristides Pereira	Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
Union of the Comoros	French Comoros	فرنسا	6 July 1975	Ahmed Abdallah	Comorian independence referendum, 1974
ساوتومه وپرنسيپه	Overseas Province of São Tomé and Príncipe	الپرتغال	12 July 1975	Manuel Pinto da Costa	-
People's Republic of Angola	State of Angola	الپرتغال	11 November 1975	Agostinho Neto	Angolan War of Independence
Republic of Seychelles	Seychelles	المملكة المتحدة	29 June 1976	James Richard Marie Mancham	-
Republic of Djibouti	French Territory of the Afars and the Issas	French Fifth Republic	27 June 1977	Hassan Gouled Aptidon	Afars and Issas independence referendum, 1977
الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية‎	Spanish Sahara Southern Provinces	إسپانيا المغرب	27 February 1976 independence not yet effectuated	El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed Mohamed Abdelaziz	Western Sahara War Western Sahara conflict

Notes

^ Birmingham, David (1995). The Decolonization of Africa. Routledge. ISBN .
^ "Berlin Conference of 1884-1885". www.oxfordreference.com. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
^ "A Brief History of the Berlin Conference". teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
^ Evans, Alistair. "Countries in Africa Considered Never Colonized". africanhistory.about.com. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
^ Hunt, Michael (2017). The World Transformed 1945 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 264. ISBN .
^ [1], DECOLONISATION OF AFRICA. (2017). HISTORY AND GENERAL STUDIES.
^ Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonized countries.
^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and UN Trust Territories.
^ The dates of decolonization for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonized independent countries are given in separate notes.
^ The Union of South Africa was constituted through the South Africa Act entering into force on 31 May 1910. On 11 December 1931 it got increased self-governance powers through the Statute of Westminster which was followed by transformation into republic after the 1960 referendum. Afterwards, South Africa was under apartheid regime until elections resulting from the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa on 27 April 1994 when Nelson Mandela became president.
^ Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.
^ King, Joan Wucher (1989) [First published 1984]. Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Books of Lasting Value. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 259–260. ISBN .
^ On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence with the exception of four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The Anglo–Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until the 1952 revolution. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956.
^ Robert O. Collins, A History of Modern Sudan
^ Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.
^ See Tunisian independence.
^ Cape Juby was ceded by Spain to Morocco on 2 April 1958. Ifni was returned from Spain to Morocco on أربعة January 1969.
^ The British Togoland mandate and trust territory was integrated into Gold Coast colony on 13 December 1956.
^ After the French Cameroun mandate and trust territory gained independence it was joined by part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
^ Minor armed insurgency from Union of the Peoples of Cameroon.
^ Senegal and French Sudan gained independence on 20 June 1960 as the Mali Federation, which dissolved a few months later into present day Senegal and Mali.
^ The Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) united with the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) on 1 July 1960 to form the Somali Republic (Somalia).
^ Part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961 joined Nigeria. The other part of British Cameroons joined the previously decolonized French Cameroun mandate and territory.
^ After both gained independence Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged on 26 April 1964.
^ See the Mau Mau Uprising
^ The Sultanate of Zanzibar would later be overthrown within a month of sovereignty by the Zanzibar Revolution.
^ Due the Rhodesia's unwillingness to accommodate the British government's request for black majority rule, the United Kingdom (along with the rest of the international community) refused to recognize the white-minority led government. The former self-governing colony would not be recognized as an independent state until the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, under the name Zimbabwe.
^ Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence were linked to the liberation movement occurring in Guinea-Bissau, the island country itself saw little fighting.
^ UN General Assembly Resolution 34/37 and UN General Assembly Resolution 35/19
^ The Spanish colonial rule de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Spanish Sahara), when the territory was passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexed the entire territory in 1979). The decolonization of Western Sahara is still pending, while a declaration of independence has been proclaimed by the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, which controls only a small portion east of the Moroccan Wall. The UN still considers Spain the legal administrating country of the whole territory, awaiting the outcome of the ongoing Manhasset negotiations and resulting election to be overseen by the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. However, the de facto administrator is Morocco (see United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories).

== المراجع ==*Ali A. Mazrui ed. "General History of Africa" vol. VIII, UNESCO, 1993

Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002).
Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonization (Routledge, 2014).
Cooper, Frederick. Decolonization and African society: The labor question in French and British Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Michael Crowder. "The Story of Nigeria" Faber and Faber, London, 1978 (1962)
Dávila, Jerry. "Hotel Tropico: Brazil and the challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980." Duke University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0822348559
Gordon, April A. and Donald L. Gordon, Lynne Riener. Understanding Contemporary Africa (London, 1996).
Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonization (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp*Kevin Shillington "History of Africa" St. Martin's Press, New York, 1995 (1989)
Khapoya, Vincent B. The African Experience (1994)
White, Nicholas. Decolonization: the British experience since 1945 (Routledge, 2014).

وصلات خارجية

Africa: 50 years of independence Radio France Internationale in English
"Winds of Change or Hot Air? Decolonization and the Salt Water Test" Legal Frontiers International Law Blog