الغدد الصم

الغدد الصماء الرئيسية. (ذكر يسار, أنثى على اليمين.) 1. غدة صنوبرية 2. غدة نخامية 3. غدة درقية 4. ثيموس 5. غدة كظرية 6. بنكرياس 7. مبيض 8. خصية

جهاز الغدد الصماء أوالجهاز الصماوي (بالإنجليزية: Endocrine system) تعبير عن جهاز متكامل من الأعضاء الصغيرة التي تقوم بتحرير جزيئات إشارة خارج خلوية تدعى هرمونات. الجهاز الصماوي له دور أساسي في تنظيم الاستقلاب والنموووظائف الأنسجة، كما حتى له دور في تحديد المزاج. الفهم الطبي الذي يتعامل مع اعتلالات الغدد الصماء يسمى فهم الغدد الصم وهوفرع من الطب الباطني.

وظيفة جهاز الغدد الصماء

يقوم جهاز الغدد الصماء (بالإضافة للجهاز العصبي) بالتحكم في وظائف الجسم وهي غدد لاقنوية ductless تفرز مواد كيميائية تسمى هرمونات hormones تتجه إلى الدم مباشرة، ومن هنا تسمى الغدد ذات الإفراز الداخلي ، ولابد من إنتاج هذه الهرمونات بالكميات المطلوبة لكي تؤدي وظائفها على أحسن وجه. أما إذا زاد إفراز الهرمون عن حاجة الجسم أونقص فهذا يفترض أن يؤدي إلى إختلال في الوظيفة مما قد يسبب أعراضا سقمية تختلف من هرمون إلى آخر.

الغدد الصماء في الفقاريات

- الغدة النخامية pituitary gland.

- تحت المهاد hypothalamus.

- الغدة الصنوبرية pineal gland.

- الغدة الدرقية thyroid gland.

- الغدة الجاردرقية parathyroid glands.

- الغدة الكظرية (فوق الكلوية) adrenal (suprarenal).

- المناسل gonads (المبيض ovary في الأنثى والخصية testis في الذكر).

- المشيمة (خلال فترة الحمل) (ويعتبر غدة صماء حيث يقوم بإفراز ثلاث هرمونات وأيضا يعتبر غدة قنوية لأنه يقوم بإفراز العصارة البنكرياسية).

- البنكرياس pancreas (ويعتبر غدة صماء حيث يقوم بإفراز ثلاث هرمونات وأيضا يعتبر غدة قنوية لأنه يقوم بإفراز العصارة البنكرياسية).

- مخاطية المعدة والأمعاء gastrointestinal mucosa.

- الكليتان kidneys.

أمراض الغدد الصماء

هناك عدة طرق لإصابة الغدد بخلل في وظائفها هى : 1- نقص إنتاج الهورمون.

2- زيادة إنتاج الهورمون.

3- إنتاج هورمون غير طبيعي.

4- وجود خلل في أماكن استقبال الهورمون لإحداث تأثيره الفسيولوجي.

5- وجود خلل في نقل الهورمون أوتفاعله الكيميائي.

6- وجود أورام حميدة أوخبيثة في الغدة المصابة.

جدول الغدد الصم والهرمونات التي تفرزها

This is a table of the glands of the endocrine system, and their secreted hormones

الوطاء Hypothalamus

الهرمون المفرز	اختصاره	من خلايا	تأثيره
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone	TRH	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary (primarily) Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone	GnRH	Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic area	Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
Growth hormone-releasing hormone	GHRH	Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus	Release GH from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing hormone	CRH	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
Vasopressin		Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
Somatostatin, also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone	SS or GHIH	Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus	Inhibit release of GH and TSH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine	PIH or DA	Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus	Inhibit release of prolactin and TSH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin-releasing hormone	PRH		Release prolactin from anterior pituitary

Pineal body

الهرمون المفرز	من خلايا	تأثيره
ملاتونين (أساساً)	الخلايا الصنوبرية Pinealocytes	مضاد للتأكسد antioxidant ويسبب النعاس

الغدة النخامية Pituitary (النخامية hypophysis)

الفص الأمامي من الغدة النخامية النخامية الأمامية Anterior pituitary فص (adenohypophysis)

الهرمون المفرز	اختصاره	من خلايا	تأثيره
Growth hormone	GH	Somatotropes	stimulates growth and cell reproduction Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver
Prolactin	PRL	Lactotropes	milk production in mammary glands sexual gratification after sexual acts
Adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotropin	ACTH	Corticotropes	synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in adrenocortical cells
Lipotropin		Corticotropes	lipolysis and steroidogenesis, stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin	TSH	Thyrotropes	stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Follicle-stimulating hormone	FSH	Gonadotropes	In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary. In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone	LH	Gonadotropes	In female: ovulation In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone

Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
اوكسيتوسين Oxytocin		Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people. and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness) . يدر لبن الثدي
Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone	AVP or ADH	Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	retention of water in kidneys moderate vasoconstriction

Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone	MSH	Melanotroph	melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair.

الدرقية Thyroid

الهرمون المفرز	اختصاره	من خلايا	تأثيره
Triiodothyronine	T3	Thyroid epithelial cell	potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis
Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine	T4	Thyroid epithelial cells	less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis, often functions as a prohormone
Calcitonin		Parafollicular cells	Construct bone reduce blood

الجار درقية Parathyroid

الهرمون المفرز	اختصاره	من خلايا	تأثيره
Parathyroid hormone	PTH	Parathyroid chief cell	increase blood : *indirectly stimulate osteoclasts Ca²⁺ reabsorption in kidney activate vitamin D (Slightly) decrease blood phosphate: (decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones activate vitamin D)

القلب

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Atrial-natriuretic peptide	ANP	Cardiac myocytes	Reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats
Brain natriuretic peptide	BNP	Cardiac myocytes	(To a minor degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats

Striated muscle

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Thrombopoietin	Myocytes	stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets

البشرة

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D₃)		Inactive form of Vitamin D3

نسيج شحمي Adipose tissue

الهرمون المفرز	From cells	Effect
لپتين Leptin (أساساً)	Adipocytes	decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
Estrogens (mainly Estrone)	Adipocytes

المعدة

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
گاسترين Gastrin (أساساً)		G cells	Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin		P/D1 cells	Stimulate appetite, secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland
Neuropeptide Y	NPY		increased food intake and decreased physical activity
سكرتين Secretin		خلايا S	افراز البيكربونات من الكبد, البنكرياس وغدد برونر Brunner's gland الاثنى عشرية Enhances effects of cholecystokinin يوقف انتاج العصارة المعدية
سوماتوستاتين Somatostatin		D cells	Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine
هستامين Histamine		ECL cells	stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin		X cells	Smooth muscle contraction of stomach

الإثنى عشر

الهرمون المفرز	من خلايا	تأثيره
Cholecystokinin	I cells	Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant

الكبد

الهرمون المفرز	الاختصار	من خلايا	تأثيره
Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily)	IGF	Hepatocytes	insulin-like effects regulate cell growth and development
Angiotensinogen and angiotensin		Hepatocytes	vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.
Thrombopoietin		Hepatocytes	stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets

البنكرياس

Secreted hormone	من خلايا	Effect
Insulin (Primarily)	ß Islet cells	Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects
Glucagon (Also Primarily)	a Islet cells	glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver increases blood glucose level
Somatostatin	d Islet cells	Inhibit release of insulin Inhibit release of glucagon Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.
Pancreatic polypeptide	PP cells	Unknown

الكلية

Secreted hormone	من خلايا	Effect
Renin (Primarily)	Juxtaglomerular cells	Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO)	Extraglomerular mesangial cells	Stimulate erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃)		Active form of vitamin D3 Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Thrombopoietin		stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets

Adrenal glands

Adrenal cortex

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol)	zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells	Stimulation of gluconeogenesis Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone)	Zona glomerulosa cells	Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily) Potassium and secretion in kidney.
Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone)	Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells	Virilization, anabolic

Adrenal medulla

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily)	Chromaffin cells	Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion) Suppress immune system
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)	Chromaffin cells	Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
Dopamine	Chromaffin cells	Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin	Chromaffin cells	Regulate pain

الخصيتان

Secreted hormone	من خلايا	Effect
Androgens (chiefly testosterone)	Leydig cells	Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.
Estradiol	Sertoli cells	Prevent apoptosis of germ cells
Inhibin	Sertoli cells	Inhibit production of FSH

Ovary

These originate either from the ovarian follicle or the corpus luteum.

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
پروجسترون Progesterone	Granulosa cells, theca cells	Support pregnancy: Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. غيره: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Anti-inflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin Promote healing by regulating collagen Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen
Androstenedione	Theca cells	Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainly estradiol)	Granulosa cells	Structural: Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate height growth Accelerate metabolism (burn fat) Reduce muscle mass Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Maintain blood vessels and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis: Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation: Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat depositition Fluid balance: Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention Increase growth hormone Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.) Lung function: Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.
Inhibin	Granulosa cells	Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary

المشيمة (أثناء الحمل)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Progesterone (أساساً)			Support pregnancy: Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone
Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)			Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen
Human chorionic gonadotropin	HCG	Syncytiotrophoblast	promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.
Human placental lactogen	HPL	Syncytiotrophoblast	increase production of insulin and IGF-1 increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance
Inhibin		Fetal Trophoblasts	suppress FSH

الرحم (when pregnant)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
پرولاكتين Prolactin	PRL	Decidual cells	milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin		Decidual cells	Unclear in humans

وصلات خارجية

Journals Designed for Clinical Endocrinologists

Islet cell antibody
Binding of antibody to pancreas
Kidshealth.org

المصادر

شبكة العلوم العربية
ويكيبديا

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^ Scientific American Mind, "Rhythm and Blues"; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft
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^ The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors. Frühbeck G. (Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004 Jul;2(3):197-208.)
^ http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin
^ Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 (2005) , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1), Takayuki Matsumoto1), Tsuneo Kobayashi1), Yutaka Kasuya1) and Katsuo Kamata1)
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^ http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/placenta/endocrine.html خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "colostate" معهد أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "colostate" معهد أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة. خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صالح؛ الاسم "colostate" معهد أكثر من مرة بمحتويات مختلفة.
^ Physiology at MCG 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13
^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. PMID 3184927.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ http://www.breastcancer.org/tre_sys_hrt_idx.html
^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. PMID 15298854 url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154. Missing pipe in: |id= (help)