قائمة إسقاطات الخرائط
-
التعديلات والإضافات المدعومة بمراجع مرحب بها.
توفر القائمة التالية نظرة عامة على بعض من أبرز أوأكثر إسقاطات الخرائط شيوعاً. وحيث حتى عدد إسقاطات الخرائط المحتملة غير محدود، ليس هناك قائمة نهائية تضمها كلها.
جدول الإسقاطات
الإسقاط | صور | النوع | الخصائص | المنشئ | السنة | ملاحظات |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
متساوي المستطيلات = إسقاط الاسطوانات المتساوية التباع = الإسقاط الجغرافي = la carte parallélogrammatique |
اسطواني | متساوي المستطيلات | مارينوس الصوري | ح. 120 | الهندسة المبسطة؛ يتم الحفاظ على المسافات على امتداد خطوط الطول. پلات كاري: حالة خاصةقد يكون فيها خط الاستواء متوازي القياس. |
|
كاسيني = كاسيني-سولدنر |
استطواني | متساوي المستطيلات | سيزار-فرنسوا كاسيني دى توري | 1745 | Transverse of equidistant projection; distances along central meridian are conserved. Distances perpendicular to central meridian are preserved. |
|
مركاتور = رايت |
اسطواني | متطابق | جراردوس مركاتور | 1569 | Lines of constant bearing (rhumb lines) are straight, aiding navigation. Areas inflate with latitude, becoming so extreme that the map cannot show the poles. | |
شبكة مركاتور | اسطواني | مرن | گوگل | 2005 | Variant of Mercator that ignores Earth's ellipticity for fast calculation, and clips latitudes to ~85.05° for square presentation. De facto standard for Web mapping applications. | |
گاوس–كروگر = گاوس المتطابق = إسقاط عرضي (بيضاوي) |
اسطواني | متطابق |
كارل فريدريش گاوس
يوهان هاينريش لويس كروگر |
1822 | This transverse, ellipsoidal form of the Mercator is finite, unlike the equatorial Mercator. Forms the basis of the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system. | |
گال التجسيمي مشابه لبراون[] |
اسطواني | مرن | جيمس گال | 1855 | Intended to resemble the Mercator while also displaying the poles. Standard parallels at 45°N/S. Braun[] is horizontally stretched version with scale correct at equator. |
|
ميلر = ميلر الاسطواني |
اسطواني | مرن | أوسبورن ميتلاند ميلر | 1942 | Intended to resemble the Mercator while also displaying the poles. | |
لامبرت الأسطواني متساوي المساحات | اسطواني | متساوي المساحة | يوهان هاينرش لامبرت | 1772 | Standard parallel at the equator. Aspect ratio of π (3.14). Base projection of the cylindrical equal-area family. | |
برمان | اسطواني | متساوي المساحة | ڤالتر برمان | 1910 | Horizontally compressed version of the Lambert equal-area. Has standard parallels at 30°N/S and an aspect ratio of 2.36. | |
هوبو-داير | اسطواني | متساوي المساحة | مايك داير | 2002 | Horizontally compressed version of the Lambert equal-area. Very similar are Trystan Edwards and Smyth equal surface (= Craster rectangular) projections with standard parallels at around 37°N/S. Aspect ratio of ~2.0. | |
گال–پيترز = إسقاط گال العمودي = پيترز |
اسطواني | متساوي المساحة |
جيمس گال
(أرنوپيترز) |
1855 | Horizontally compressed version of the Lambert equal-area. Standard parallels at 45°N/S. Aspect ratio of ~1.6. Similar is Balthasart projection with standard parallels at 50°N/S. | |
الاسطواني المركزي | اسطواني | منظوري | (غير معروف) | ح. 1850 | Practically unused in cartography because of severe polar distortion, but popular in panoramic photography, especially for architectural scenes. | |
سينوسويدال = سانسون-فلامستيد = مركاتور متساوي المساحة |
Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة، متساوي المستطيلات | (عدة؛ الأول مجهول) | ح. 1600 | Meridians are sinusoids; parallels are equally spaced. Aspect ratio of 2:1. Distances along parallels are conserved. | |
مولڤايد = البيضاوي = بابينت = homolographic |
Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | كارل براندان مولڤايد | 1805 | خطوط الطول بيضاوية. | |
إكرت الثاني | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | ماكس إكرت-گريافندورف | 1906 | ||
إكرت الرابع | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | ماكس إكرت-گريافندورف | 1906 | Parallels are unequal in spacing and scale; outer meridians are semicircles; other meridians are semiellipses. | |
إكرت السادس | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | ماكس إكرت-گريافندورف | 1906 | Parallels are unequal in spacing and scale; meridians are half-period sinusoids. | |
أورتليوس البيضاوي | Pseudocylindrical | مرن | باتيستا أگنيز | 1540 |
خطوط العرض دائرية. |
|
Goode homolosine | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | جون پول گود | 1923 | Hybrid of Sinusoidal and Mollweide projections. Usually used in interrupted form. |
|
كاڤرايسكي السابع | Pseudocylindrical | مرن | ڤلاديمير ڤ. كاڤرايسكي | 1939 | Evenly spaced parallels. Equivalent to Wagner VI horizontally compressed by a factor of . | |
روبنسون | Pseudocylindrical | مرن | أرثر هـ. روبنسون | 1963 | Computed by interpolation of tabulated values. Used by Rand McNally since inception and used by NGS 1988–98. | |
الأرض الطبيعية | Pseudocylindrical | مرن | توم پاترسون | 2011 | Computed by interpolation of tabulated values. | |
Tobler hyperelliptical | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | والدور. توبلر | 1973 | A family of map projections that includes as special cases Mollweide projection, Collignon projection, and the various cylindrical equal-area projections. | |
ڤاگنر السادس | Pseudocylindrical | مرن | ك.هـ. ڤاگنر | 1932 | Equivalent to Kavrayskiy VII vertically compressed by a factor of . | |
كولينون | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | إدوار كولينون | ح. 1865 | Depending on configuration, the projection also may map the sphere to a single diamond or a pair of squares. | |
HEALPix | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | كريزيستوف م. گورسكي | 1997 | Hybrid of Collignon + Lambert cylindrical equal-area | |
Boggs eumorphic | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | صمويل وايتمور بوگس | 1929 | The equal-area projection that results from average of sinusoidal and Mollweide y-coordinates and thereby constraining the x coordinate. | |
Craster parabolic =Putniņš P4 |
Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | جون كراستر | 1929 | Meridians are parabolas. Standard parallels at 36°46′N/S; parallels are unequal in spacing and scale; 2:1 Aspect. | |
McBryde-Thomas flat-pole quartic = مكبرايد-توماس #4 |
Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | فليكس و. مكبرايد، پول توماس | 1949 | Standard parallels at 33°45′N/S; parallels are unequal in spacing and scale; meridians are fourth-order curves. Distortion-free only where the standard parallels intersect the central meridian. | |
Quartic authalic | Pseudocylindrical | متساوي المساحة | كارل توماس، أوسكار أدامز | 1937
1944 |
Parallels are unequal in spacing and scale. No distortion along the equator. Meridians are fourth-order curves. | |
تاميز | Pseudocylindrical | من | جون موير | 1965 | Standard parallels 45°N/S. Parallels based on Gall stereographic, but with curved meridians. Developed for Bartholomew Ltd., The Times Atlas. | |
Loximuthal | Pseudocylindrical | مرن | كارل سيمون، والدوتوبلر | 1935, 1966 | From the designated centre, lines of constant bearing (rhumb lines/loxodromes) are straight and have the correct length. Generally asymmetric about the equator. | |
Aitoff | Pseudoazimuthal | مرن | David A. Aitoff | 1889 | Stretching of modified equatorial azimuthal equidistant map. Boundary is 2:1 ellipse. Largely superseded by Hammer. | |
Hammer = Hammer-Aitoff variations: Briesemeister; Nordic |
Pseudoazimuthal | متساوي المساحة | إرنست هامر | 1892 | Modified from azimuthal equal-area equatorial map. Boundary is 2:1 ellipse. Variants are oblique versions, centred on 45°N. | |
Winkel tripel | Pseudoazimuthal | Compromise | Oswald Winkel | 1921 | Arithmetic mean of the equirectangular projection and the Aitoff projection. Standard world projection for the NGS 1998–present. | |
Van der Grinten | Other | Compromise | Alphons J. van der Grinten | 1904 | Boundary is a circle. All parallels and meridians are circular arcs. Usually clipped near 80°N/S. Standard world projection of the NGS 1922–88. | |
Equidistant conic = simple conic |
Conic | Equidistant | Based on Ptolemy's 1st Projection | ح. 100 | Distances along meridians are conserved, as is distance along one or two standard parallels | |
Lambert conformal conic | Conic | Conformal | Johann Heinrich Lambert | 1772 | Used in aviation charts. | |
Albers conic | Conic | Equal-area | Heinrich C. Albers | 1805 | Two standard parallels with low distortion between them. | |
Werner | Pseudoconical | Equal-area, Equidistant | Johannes Stabius | ح. 1500 | Distances from the North Pole are correct as are the curved distances along parallels and distances along central meridian. | |
Bonne | Pseudoconical, cordiform | Equal-area | Bernardus Sylvanus | 1511 | Parallels are equally spaced circular arcs and standard lines. Appearance depends on reference parallel. General case of both Werner and sinusoidal | |
Bottomley | Pseudoconical | Equal-area | Henry Bottomley | 2003 | Alternative to the Bonne projection with simpler overall shape Parallels are elliptical arcs |
|
American polyconic | Pseudoconical | Compromise | Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler | ح. 1820 | Distances along the parallels are preserved as are distances along the central meridian. | |
Rectangular polyconic | Pseudoconical | Compromise | U.S. Coast Survey | ح. 1853 | Latitude along which scale is correct can be chosen. Parallels meet meridians at right angles. | |
Latitudinally equal-differential polyconic | Pseudoconical | Compromise | China State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping | 1963 | Polyconic: parallels are non-concentric arcs of circles. | |
Azimuthal equidistant =Postel zenithal equidistant |
Azimuthal | Equidistant | Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī | ح. 1000 | Used by the USGS in the National Atlas of the United States of America.
Distances from centre are conserved. |
|
Gnomonic | Azimuthal | Gnomonic | Thales (possibly) | ح. 580 BC | All great circles map to straight lines. Extreme distortion far from the center. Shows less than one hemisphere. | |
Lambert azimuthal equal-area | Azimuthal | Equal-area | Johann Heinrich Lambert | 1772 | The straight-line distance between the central point on the map to any other point is the same as the straight-line 3D distance through the globe between the two points. | |
المجسم | Azimuthal | Conformal | هيپارخوس (نشره) | ح. 200 ق.م. | Map is infinite in extent with outer hemisphere inflating severely, so it is often used as two hemispheres. Maps all small circles to circles, which is useful for planetary mapping to preserve the shapes of craters. | |
المتآصل | Azimuthal | منظوري | Hipparchos (نشره) | ح. 200 ق.م. | View from an infinite distance. | |
منظوري رأسي | Azimuthal | منظوري | ماتياس سوتر (نشره) | 1740 | View from a finite distance. Can only display less than a hemisphere. | |
Two-point equidistant | Azimuthal | Equidistant | Hans Maurer | 1919 | Two "control points" can be almost arbitrarily chosen. The two straight-line distances from any point on the map to the two control points are correct. | |
Peirce quincuncial | أخرى | Conformal | تشارلز ساندرز پيرس | 1879 | ||
Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection | أخرى | Conformal | Émile Guyou | 1887 | ||
Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection | أخرى | Conformal | أوسكار شرمان آدمز | 1925 | ||
Lee conformal world on a tetrahedron | Polyhedral | Conformal | ل. پ. لي | 1965 | Projects the globe onto a regular tetrahedron. Tessellates. | |
Authagraph projection | Link to file | Polyhedral | Compromise | Hajime Narukawa | 1999 | Approximately equal-area. Tessellates. |
Octant projection | Polyhedral | Compromise | Leonardo da Vinci | 1514 | Projects the globe onto eight octants (Reuleaux triangles) with no meridians and no parallels. | |
Cahill's Butterfly Map | Polyhedral | Compromise | Bernard Joseph Stanislaus Cahill | 1909 | Projects the globe onto an octahedron with symmetrical components and contiguous landmasses that may be displayed in various arrangements | |
Cahill–Keyes projection | Polyhedral | Compromise | Gene Keyes | 1975 | Projects the globe onto a truncated octahedron with symmetrical components and contiguous land masses | |
Waterman butterfly projection | Polyhedral | Compromise | Steve Waterman | 1996 | Projects the globe onto a truncated octahedron with symmetrical components and contiguous land masses that may be displayed in various arrangements | |
Quadrilateralized spherical cube | Polyhedral | متساوي المساحة | F. Kenneth Chan, E. M. O’Neill | 1973 | ||
Dymaxion map | Polyhedral | مرن | بكمنستر فولر | 1943 | يُعهد أيضاً بمنظور فولر. | |
Myriahedral projections | Polyhedral | مرن | Jarke J. van Wijk | 2008 | Projects the globe onto a myriahedron: a polyhedron with a very large number of faces. | |
Craig retroazimuthal = Mecca |
Retroazimuthal | مرن | James Ireland Craig | 1909 | ||
Hammer retroazimuthal, front hemisphere | Retroazimuthal | إرنتس هامر | 1910 | |||
Hammer retroazimuthal, back hemisphere | Retroazimuthal | إرنست هامر | 1910 | |||
Littrow | Retroazimuthal | Conformal | Joseph Johann Littrow | 1833 | on equatorial aspect it shows a hemisphere except for poles | |
أرماديلو | أخرى | مرن | Erwin Raisz | 1943 | ||
GS50 | أخرى | Conformal | John P. Snyder | 1982 | Designed specifically to minimize distortion when used to display all 50 U.S. states. | |
Nicolosi globular | Polyconic | Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī; reinvented by Giovanni Battista Nicolosi, 1660. | ح. 1000 | |||
Roussilhe oblique stereographic | Henri Roussilhe | 1922 | ||||
Hotine oblique Mercator | اسطواني | Conformal | M. Rosenmund, J. Laborde, Martin Hotine | 1903 |
المفتاح
الهوامش
- ^ Snyder, John P. (1993). Flattening the earth: two thousand years of map projections. University of Chicago Press. p. 1. ISBN .
- ^ Donald Fenna (2006). . CRC Press. p. 249. ISBN .
- ^ Carlos A. Furuti. Conic Projections: Equidistant Conic Projections
- ^ Jarke J. van Wijk. "Unfolding the Earth: Myriahedral Projections". [1]
- ^ Carlos A. Furuti. "Interrupted Maps: Myriahedral Maps". [2]
- ^ "Nicolosi Globular projection"
قراءات إضافية
- Snyder, John P. (1987), Map projections: A working manual, Professional Paper 1395, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/pp1395