مضاد حيوى

أختبار لأثر المضاد الحيوى على بكتيريا الستافيلوكوكس أوريس (Staphylococcus aureus)

المضاد الحيويّ أوالصاد الحيوي هومركّب أودواء ينتج من بعض الفطريات أويصنّع كيميائيًّا، ويقتل البكتيريا أويساهم في تقليص نموّها، وليس له أيّ تأثير على الفيروسات أوالفطريّات.

تاريخ

Penicillin

رغم حتى مفهوم المضادّ الحيويّ لم ينشأ إلّا في القرن العشرين إلّا أنّ استخدامها قد بدأ في الصين منذ أكثر من 2,500 سنة، وكثيرٍ من الحضارات القديمة كالحضارة الفرعونية والحضارة الإغريقية التي استخدمت النباتات في علاج الكثير من الأمراض والعدوى دون التنبّه إلى المادّة الفعّالة داخل النباتات. في ألمانيا عام 1909 طوّر بول إرليخ (Paul Ehrlich) مضادًّا حيويًّا ضعيف المدى هو"سالفرسان" (Salvarsan) واستخدم في علاج السيلان الذى كان منتشرًا بكثرة في تلك الفترة. وكان الاكتشاف الحقيقيّ للمضادّات الحيويّة في إنجلترا عام 1928 بواسطة ألكسندر فلمينگ (Alexander Fleming) حيث اكتشف البينسلين. وبعد عشرة أعوام قام إرنست تشين Ernst B. Chain وهاورد فلوري Howard W. Florey بتحضير نوع صافٍ من البينسلين. وحصل الثلاثة على جائزة نوبل في الطب عام 1945.

Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
Allergic reactions

**Antibiotics**
Generic Name	Brand Names	الاستعمالات الشائعة	Possible Side Effects	آلية العمل
Aminoglycosides
Amikacin	Amikin	Infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella particularly Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Effective against Aerobic bacteria (not obligate/facultative anaerobes).	Hearing loss Vertigo Kidney damage	Binding to the bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit (some work by binding to the 50S subunit), inhibiting the translocation of the peptidyl-tRNA from the A-site to the P-site and also causing misreading of mRNA, leaving the bacterium unable to synthesize proteins vital to its growth.
Gentamicin	Garamycin
Kanamycin	Kantrex
Neomycin
Netilmicin	Netromycin
Streptomycin
Tobramycin	Nebcin
Paromomycin	Humatin
Ansamycins
Geldanamycin		Experimental, as antitumor antibiotics
Herbimycin		Experimental, as antitumor antibiotics
Carbacephem
Loracarbef	Lorabid			prevents bacterial cell division by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
Carbapenems
Ertapenem	Invanz	Bactericidal for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms and therefore useful for empiric broad-spectrum antibacterial coverage. (Note MRSA resistance to this class.)	Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea Seizures Headache Rash and Allergic reactions	Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
Doripenem	Finibax
Imipenem/Cilastatin	Primaxin
Meropenem	Merrem
Cephalosporins (First generation)
Cefadroxil	Duricef		Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently) Allergic reactions	Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cefazolin	Ancef
Cefalotin or Cefalothin	Keflin
Cefalexin	Keflex
Cephalosporins (Second generation)
Cefaclor	Ceclor		Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently) Allergic reactions	Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cefamandole	Mandole
Cefoxitin	Mefoxin
Cefprozil	Cefzil
Cefuroxime	Ceftin, Zinnat
Cephalosporins (Third generation)
Cefixime	Suprax		Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently) Allergic reactions	Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cefdinir	Omnicef
Cefditoren	Spectracef
Cefoperazone	Cefobid
Cefotaxime	Claforan
Cefpodoxime
Ceftazidime	Fortaz
Ceftibuten	Cedax
Ceftizoxime
Ceftriaxone	Rocephin
Cephalosporins (Fourth generation)
Cefepime	Maxipime		Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently) Allergic reactions	Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Cephalosporins (Fifth generation)
Ceftobiprole
Glycopeptides
Teicoplanin				inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
Vancomycin	Vancocin			inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
Macrolides
Azithromycin	Zithromax, Sumamed, Zitrocin	Streptococcal infections, syphilis, respiratory infections, mycoplasmal infections, Lyme disease	Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (especially at higher doses) Jaundice	inhibition of bacterial protein biosynthesis by binding irreversibly to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting translocation of peptidyl tRNA.
Clarithromycin	Biaxin
Dirithromycin
Erythromycin	Erythocin, Erythroped
Roxithromycin
Troleandomycin
Telithromycin	Ketek	Pneumonia	Visual Disturbance, LIVER TOXICITY.
Spectinomycin		Antimetabolite, Anticancer
Monobactams
Aztreonam				Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Penicillins
Amoxicillin	Novamox, Amoxil	Wide range of infections; penicillin used for streptococcal infections, syphilis, and Lyme disease	Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea Allergy with serious anaphylactic reactions Brain and kidney damage (rare)	Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls.
Ampicillin
Azlocillin
Carbenicillin
Cloxacillin
Dicloxacillin
Flucloxacillin	Floxapen
Mezlocillin
Meticillin
Nafcillin
Oxacillin
Penicillin
Piperacillin
Ticarcillin
Polypeptides
Bacitracin		Eye, ear or bladder infections; usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled into the lungs; rarely given by injection	Kidney and nerve damage (when given by injection)	Inhibits isoprenyl pyrophosphate, a molecule which carries the building blocks of the peptidoglycan bacterial cell wall outside of the inner membrane
Colistin				Interact with the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, changing its permeability.
Polymyxin B
Quinolones
Ciprofloxacin	Cipro, Ciproxin, Ciprobay	Urinary tract infections, bacterial prostatitis, community-acquired pneumonia, bacterial diarrhea, mycoplasmal infections, gonorrhea	Nausea (rare), tendinosis (rare)	inhibit the bacterial DNA gyrase or the topoisomerase IV enzyme, thereby inhibiting DNA replication and transcription.
Enoxacin
Gatifloxacin	Tequin
Levofloxacin	Levaquin
Lomefloxacin
Moxifloxacin	Avelox
Norfloxacin	Noroxin
Ofloxacin	Ocuflox
Trovafloxacin	Trovan
Sulfonamides
Mafenide		Urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide and mafenide); mafenide is used topically for burns	Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea Allergy (including skin rashes) Crystals in urine Kidney failure Decrease in white blood cell count Sensitivity to sunlight	Folate synthesis inhibition. They are competitive inhibitors of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase, DHPS. DHPS catalyses the conversion of PABA (-aminobenzoate) to dihydropteroate, a key step in folate synthesis. Folate is necessary for the cell to synthesize nucleic acids (nucleic acids are essential building blocks of DNA and RNA), and in its absence cells will be unable to divide.
Prontosil (archaic)
Sulfacetamide
Sulfamethizole
Sulfanilimide (archaic)
Sulfasalazine
Sulfisoxazole
Trimethoprim
Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX)	Bactrim
Tetracyclines
Demeclocycline		Syphilis, chlamydial infections, Lyme disease, mycoplasmal infections, acne rickettsial infections	Gastrointestinal upset Sensitivity to sunlight Staining of teeth (especially in children) Potential toxicity to mother and fetus during pregnancy	inhibiting the binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex. They do so mainly by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit in the mRNA translation complex.
Doxycycline	Vibramycin
Minocycline	Minocin
Oxytetracycline	Terracin
Tetracycline	Sumycin
Others
Arsphenamine	Salvarsan	Spirochaetal infections (obsolete)
Chloramphenicol	Chloromycetin
Clindamycin	Cleocin	acne infections, prophylaxis before surgery
Lincomycin		acne infections, prophylaxis before surgery
Ethambutol		Antituberculosis
Fosfomycin
Fusidic acid	Fucidin
Furazolidone
Isoniazid		Antituberculosis
Linezolid	Zyvox
Metronidazole	Flagyl	Giardia
Mupirocin	Bactroban
Nitrofurantoin	Macrodantin, Macrobid
Platensimycin
Pyrazinamide		Antituberculosis
Quinupristin/Dalfopristin	Syncercid
Rifampin or Rifampicin		mostly Gram-positive and mycobacteria	Reddish-orange sweat, tears, and urine	Binds to the β subunit of RNA polymerase to inhibit transcription
Tinidazole
Generic Name	Brand Names	Common Uses	Possible Side Effects	Mechanism of action

الانتاج

أشهر المضادات الحيوية المستخدمة

- مجموعة البيتالاكتامات Betalactam ومنها مشتقات الأمبيسلّين ويتفرع منها الأموكسيسيلّين والمثبّت بواسطة حامض الكلافولينيك clavulinic acid

- مجموعة الماكروليد Macrolide مثل إيريتروميسن Erythromycin

- مجموعة الكينولون Quinolone: وأحدثها الجيل الرابع مثل moxifloxacin، الثالث مثل ليفوفلوكساسين levofloxacin وقبلها الجيل الثاني مثل سيبروفلوكساسين ciprofloxacin والجيل الأوّل مثل سينوكساسين cinoxacin.

مقاومة المضادات الحيوية

SEM depicting bacteria.

المصادر

^ [1]
^ For common Uses and possible side effects reference is: Robert Berkow (ed.) The Merck Manual of Medical Information - Home Edition. Pocket (September 1999), ISBN 0-671-02727-1.
^ Splete, Heidi (2006). "Liver toxicity reported with Ketek". Internal Medicine News. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Mechanism of Action of Bacitracin: Complexation with Metal Ion and C55-Isoprenyl Pyrophosphate K. John Stone and Jack L. Strominger
^ Life-Extension-Drugs.com - Doxycycline

وصلات خارجية

Antibiotic News from Genome News Network (GNN)
JAAPA: New antibiotics useful in primary care
A new method for controlling bacterial activity without antibiotics - Research conducted at the Hebrew University
BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations
Antibiogram technique video
European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption (ESAC)