كتلة الأرض

كتلة الأرض
الرموز الشائعة	, , or
الوحدة الدولية	كيلوگرام (kg)
وحدات أخرى	گرام (g) [CGS]; كتلة شمسية (M⊙) [IAU]
In	(5.9722±0.0006)×1024 kg
بعد قياسي SI
اشتقاقات منكميات أخرى	M⊕ = g · R2⊕ ∕ G; M⊕ = ρ · V; M⊕ = μ⊕ ∕ G;
البعد

كتلة الأرض (M_⊕، حيث ⊕ هوالرمز الفلكي القياسي لكوكب الأرض) هي وحدة كتلة مساوية كتلة الأرض. هذه القيمة تضم الغلاف الجوي ولكن تستبعد القمر. أفضل تقدير حالي لكتلة الأرض هو

M \oplus = 7024597220000000000♠ (5.9722 \pm 0.0006) \times 1024 kg

كتلة الأرض هي وحدة كتلة معيارية في الفلك تُستخدم لتوضيح كتل الكواكب الأخرى، بما في ذلك terrestrial planets الصخرية والكواكب الخارجية.

القيمة

كتلة الأرض تُقدر بالتالي:

{\displaystyle M_{\oplus =(5.9722\;\pm \;0.0006)\times 10^{24 \;\mathrm {kg

,

والتي يمكن التعبير عنها كدالة في الكتلة الشمسية كالتالي:

{\displaystyle M_{\oplus ={\frac {1 {332\;946.0487\;\pm \;0.0007 \;\mathrm {M_{\odot \approx 3.003\times 10^{-6 \;\mathrm {M_{\odot

.

Masses of noteworthy astronomical objects relative to the mass of Earth
الجرم	كتلة الأرض M_⊕	Ref
القمر	6998123000371000000♠0.0123000371(4)
الشمس	7005332946048700000♠332946.0487±0.0007
عطارد	0.0553
الزهرة	0.815
الأرض	1	حسب التعريف
المريخ	0.107
المشتري	317.8
زحل	95.2
أورانوس	14.5
نپتون	17.1
گليزه 667 Cc	3.8
كپلر-442b	1.0 – 8.2

نسبة كتلة الأرض إلى الكتلة القمرية قد قيست بدقة كبيرة. The current best estimate is:

{\displaystyle M_{\oplus /M_{L =81.300570\;\pm \;0.000005

تاريخ القياس

The mass of Earth is measured indirectly by determining other quantities such as Earth's density, gravity, or gravitational constant.

استخدام حاصل ضرب G‏M_⊕

Modern methods of determining the mass of Earth involve calculating the gravitational coefficient of the Earth and dividing by the Newtonian constant of gravitation,

{\displaystyle M_{\oplus ={\frac {GM_{\oplus {G .

The GM_⊕ product is determined using laser ranging data from Earth-orbiting satellites. The GM_⊕ product can also be calculated by observing the motion of the Moon or the period of a pendulum at various elevations. These methods are less precise than observations of artificial satellites.

استخدام ثابت شاقولي

Earlier efforts (after 1798) to determine Earth's mass involved measuring G directly as in the Cavendish experiment. Earth's mass could be then found by combining two equations; Newton's second law, and Newton's law of universal gravitation:^{[بحاجة لمصدر]}

{\displaystyle F=ma,\quad F=G{\frac {mM_{\oplus {r^{2 .

Substituting earth's gravity, g for the acceleration term, and combining the two equations gives

{\displaystyle mg=G{\frac {mM_{\oplus {r^{2

.

The equation can then be solved for M_⊕

{\displaystyle M_{\oplus ={\frac {gr^{2 {G .

With this method, the values for Earth's surface gravity, Earth's radius, and G were measured empirically.

استخدام انحراف بندول

Before the Cavendish Experiment, attempts to "weigh" Earth involved estimating the mean density of Earth and its volume.^[] The volume was well understood through surveying techniques, and the density was measured by observing the slight deflection of a pendulum near a mountain, as in the Schiehallion experiment. The Earth mass could then be calculated as:^{[بحاجة لمصدر]}

{\displaystyle M_{\oplus =\rho V

.

This technique resulted in a mass estimate that is 20% lower than today's accepted value.

Using the period of a pendulum

An expedition from 1737 to 1740 by French scientist Pierre Bouguer attempted to determine the density of Earth by measuring the period of a pendulum (and therefore the strength of gravity) as a function of elevation. The experiments were carried out in Ecuador and Peru, on Pichincha Volcano and mount Chimborazo. Bouguer's work led to an estimate that is two to three times larger than the true mass of Earth. However, this historical determination showed that the Earth was not hollow nor filled with water, as some had argued at the time. Modern gravitometers are now used for measuring the local gravitational field. They surpass the accuracy limitations of pendulums.

تجارب بالبندول في القرن 19

Much later, in 1821, Francesco Carlini determined a density value of ρ = 7000438999999999999♠4.39 g/cm³ through measurements made with pendulums in the Milan area. This value was refined in 1827 by Edward Sabine to 7000476999999999999♠4.77 g/cm³, and then in 1841 by Carlo Ignazio Giulio to 7000495000000000000♠4.95 g/cm³. On the other hand, George Biddell Airy sought to determine ρ by measuring the difference in the period of a pendulum between the surface and the bottom of a mine. The first tests took place in Cornwall between 1826 and 1828. The experiment was a failure due to a fire and a flood. Finally, in 1854, Airy got the value 7000660000000000000♠6.6 g/cm³ by measurements in a coal mine in Harton, Sunderland. Airy's method assumed that the Earth had a spherical stratification. Later, in 1883, the experiments conducted by Robert von Sterneck (1839 to 1910) at different depths in mines of Saxony and Bohemia provided the average density values ρ between 5.0 and 7000630000000000000♠6.3 g/cm³. This led to the concept of isostasy, which limits the ability to accurately measure ρ, by either the deviation from vertical of a plumb line or using pendulums. Despite the little chance of an accurate estimate of the average density of the Earth in this way, Thomas Corwin Mendenhall in 1880 realized a gravimetry experiment in Tokyo and at the top of Mount Fuji. The result was ρ = 7000577000000000000♠5.77 g/cm³.^{[بحاجة لمصدر]}

التفاوت

نطقب:Example farm Earth's mass is constantly changing due to many contributors. Earth primarily gains mass from micrometeorites and cosmic dust, whereas it loses hydrogen and helium gas. The combined effect is a net loss of material, though the annual mass deficit represents an inconsequential fraction of its total mass, or even the uncertainty in its mass. So its inclusion does not affect total mass calculations. A number of other mechanisms are responsible for mass adjustments, and can be classified into two categories: physical transfer of matter, and mass that is gained or lost through the absorption or release of energy due to the mass–energy equivalence principle. Several examples are provided for completeness, but their relative contribution is negligible.

المكسب الصافي

In-falling material

Cosmic dust, Cosmic Rays, meteors, comets, etc. are the most significant contributor to Earth's increase in mass. The sum of material is estimated to be 37,000 to 78,000 tons annually
Global warming: Nasa has calculated that the Earth is gaining energy due to rising temperatures. It has been estimated that this added energy increases the mass of Earth by a tiny amount – 160 tonnes per year.
Solar energy conversion (minuscule): Solar energy is converted to chemical energy by photosynthetic pigments as plants construct carbohydrate molecules. This stored chemical energy represents in increase in mass. Most of the chemical energy is reconverted into heat and then lost (radiated) through chemical processes, but some is sequestered and becomes biomass or fossil fuel.^[]
Artificial photosynthesis (minuscule): Can also theoretically add mass, assumed to be negligible but added for sake of completeness.^[]
Heat conversion (probably minuscule): Some outbound radiation is absorbed within the atmosphere by photosynthetic bacteria and archaea, including from , which bind the energy into matter in the form of chemical bonds.^[]

الفقدان الصافي

Atmospheric escape of gases.

About 3 kg/s of hydrogen or 95,000 tons per year and 1,600 tons of helium per year are lost through atmospheric escape.
Spacecraft on escape trajectories (minuscule): Spacecraft that are on escape trajectories represent an average mass loss at a rate of 7001650000000000000♠65 tons per year. Earth lost about 3473 tons in the initial 53 years of the space age, but the trend is currently decreasing.
Human energy use (minuscule): Human activities conversely reduce Earth's mass, by liberation of heat that is later radiated into space; solar photovoltaics generally do not add to the mass of Earth because the energy collected is merely transmitted (as electricity or heat) and subsequently radiated, which is generally not converted into chemical means to be stored on Earth. In 2010, the human world consumed 550 EJ of energy, orستة tons of matter converted into heat, then almost entirely lost to space.^[]
Deceleration of Earth's core (minuscule): As the rotation rate of Earth's inner core decelerates, it loses rotational kinetic energy, which equates to a loss of 16 tons per year.^[] However, this rotation speed has been shown to fluctuate over decades.
Non photosynthesizing life forms consume energy, and radiate as heat.^[]
Natural processes (probably minuscule): Events including earthquakes and volcanoes can release energy as well as hydrogen, which may be lost as heat or atmospheric escape.^[]
Radiation Losses(minuscule): From radioisotopes either naturally or through human induced reactions such as nuclear fusion or nuclear fission amount to 16 tons per year.
Additional human impact by induced nuclear fission: Nuclear fission, both for civilian and military purposes, greatly speeds up natural process of radiodecay. Some 59,000 tons of uranium was supplied by mines in 2013. The mass of the uranium is reduced as it is converted to energy during the fission reaction. Also, the growing spent fuel stockpiles and environmental releases continues to produce heat (and therefore mass) largely lost to space.^[]

انظر أيضاً

Abundance of elements in Earth's crust
Cavendish experiment
Schiehallion experiment
Earth radius
كتلة كوكبية
Orders of magnitude (mass)
Solar mass
Structure of the Earth
Gravitational constant
Earth Similarity Index

ملاحظات

^ The total estimated annual loss is 7007550000000000000♠5.5×10⁷ kg, which constitutes a fraction of $5.5e7 / 5.97e24 \approx 1 / 1e17$ = 1/100 Quadrillion

الهامش

^ "Solar System Exploration: Earth: Facts & Figures". NASA. 13 Dec 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
^ "2016 Selected Astronomical Constants" in The Astronomical Almanac Online, USNO–UKHO, http://asa.usno.navy.mil/ .
^ Pitjeva, E.V.; Standish, E.M. (2009-04-01). "Proposals for the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon-Earth mass ratio and the Astronomical Unit". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 103 (4): 365–372. Bibcode:2009CeMDA.103..365P. doi:10.1007/s10569-009-9203-8. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
^ "Planetary Fact Sheet – Ratio to Earth". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
^ "The Habitable Exoplanets Catalog – Planetary Habitability Laboratory @ UPR Arecibo".
^ "HEC: Data of Potential Habitable Worlds".
^ Konopliv, A (December 2002). "A Global Solution for the Gravity Field, Rotation, Landmarks, and Ephemeris of Eros" (PDF). Icarus. 160 (2): 289–299. Bibcode:2002Icar..160..289K. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6975.
^ Ries, J.C.; Eanes, R.J.; Shum, C.K.; Watkins, M.M. (20 March 1992). "Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (6). Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19..529R. doi:10.1029/92GL00259. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
^ Shuch, H. Paul (July 1991). "Measuring the mass of the earth: the ultimate moonbounce experiment" (PDF). Proceedings, 25th Conference of the Central States VHF Society. American Radio Relay League: 25–30. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
^ N. Kollerstrom (1992). "The hollow world of Edmond Halley". Journal for History of Astronomy. 23: 185–192. archive
^ Saxena, Shivam; Chandra, Mahesh (May 2013). "Loss in Earth Mass due to Extraterrestrial Space Exploration Missions". International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 3 (5): 1. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
^ "Spacecraft Measurements of the Cosmic Dust Flux", Herbert A. Zook. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8_5
^ Carter, Lynn. "How many meteorites hit Earth each year?". Ask an Astronomer. The Curious Team, Cornell University. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
^ McDonald, Charlotte (31 January 2012). "Who, What, Why: Is the Earth getting lighter?". BBC Magazine. BBC News. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
^ "Fantasy and Science Fiction: Science by Pat Murphy & Paul Doherty".
^ "Earth Loses 50,000 Tonnes of Mass Every Year". SciTech Daily.
^ "World energy consumption – beyond 500 exajoules". Resilience.
^ Tkalčić, Hrvoje; Young, Mallory; Bodin, Thomas; Ngo, Silvie; Sambridge, Malcolm (12 May 2013). "The shuffling rotation of the Earth's inner core revealed by earthquake doublets". Nature Geoscience. 6: 497–502. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..497T. doi:10.1038/ngeo1813.
^ "Uranium Markets".

[12] The total estimated annual loss is 7007550000000000000♠5.5×10⁷ kg, which constitutes a fraction of $5.5e7 / 5.97e24 \approx 1 / 1e17$ = 1/100 Quadrillion

[earth-sse-1] "Solar System Exploration: Earth: Facts & Figures". NASA. 13 Dec 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-22.

[AA-2] "2016 Selected Astronomical Constants" in The Astronomical Almanac Online, USNO–UKHO, http://asa.usno.navy.mil/ .

[3] Pitjeva, E.V.; Standish, E.M. (2009-04-01). "Proposals for the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon-Earth mass ratio and the Astronomical Unit". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 103 (4): 365–372. Bibcode:2009CeMDA.103..365P. doi:10.1007/s10569-009-9203-8. Retrieved 2016-02-12.

[:0-4] "Planetary Fact Sheet – Ratio to Earth". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-12.

[PHL-5] "The Habitable Exoplanets Catalog – Planetary Habitability Laboratory @ UPR Arecibo".

[UPR-Catalog-6] "HEC: Data of Potential Habitable Worlds".

[7] Konopliv, A (December 2002). "A Global Solution for the Gravity Field, Rotation, Landmarks, and Ephemeris of Eros" (PDF). Icarus. 160 (2): 289–299. Bibcode:2002Icar..160..289K. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6975.

[8] Ries, J.C.; Eanes, R.J.; Shum, C.K.; Watkins, M.M. (20 March 1992). "Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (6). Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19..529R. doi:10.1029/92GL00259. Retrieved 5 February 2016.

[moonbounce-9] Shuch, H. Paul (July 1991). "Measuring the mass of the earth: the ultimate moonbounce experiment" (PDF). Proceedings, 25th Conference of the Central States VHF Society. American Radio Relay League: 25–30. Retrieved 28 February 2016.

[Kollerstrom-10] N. Kollerstrom (1992). "The hollow world of Edmond Halley". Journal for History of Astronomy. 23: 185–192. archive

[IJSRP-11] Saxena, Shivam; Chandra, Mahesh (May 2013). "Loss in Earth Mass due to Extraterrestrial Space Exploration Missions". International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 3 (5): 1. Retrieved 9 February 2016.

[13] "Spacecraft Measurements of the Cosmic Dust Flux", Herbert A. Zook. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8694-8_5

[14] Carter, Lynn. "How many meteorites hit Earth each year?". Ask an Astronomer. The Curious Team, Cornell University. Retrieved 6 February 2016.

[15] McDonald, Charlotte (31 January 2012). "Who, What, Why: Is the Earth getting lighter?". BBC Magazine. BBC News. Retrieved 9 February 2016.

[16] "Fantasy and Science Fiction: Science by Pat Murphy & Paul Doherty".

[techdaily-17] "Earth Loses 50,000 Tonnes of Mass Every Year". SciTech Daily.

[18] "World energy consumption – beyond 500 exajoules". Resilience.

[19] Tkalčić, Hrvoje; Young, Mallory; Bodin, Thomas; Ngo, Silvie; Sambridge, Malcolm (12 May 2013). "The shuffling rotation of the Earth's inner core revealed by earthquake doublets". Nature Geoscience. 6: 497–502. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..497T. doi:10.1038/ngeo1813.

[20] "Uranium Markets".

كتلة الأرض
الرموز الشائعة	${\displaystyle M_{\oplus$ , ${\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {T$ , ${\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {E$ or ${\displaystyle E$
الوحدة الدولية	كيلوگرام (kg)
وحدات أخرى	گرام (g) [CGS] كتلة شمسية (M_⊙) [IAU]
In	7024597220000000000♠(5.9722±0.0006)×10²⁴ kg
بعد قياسي SI	${\displaystyle [M_{\oplus ]=\mathrm {M$
اشتقاقات منكميات أخرى	$M \oplus = g \cdot R 2 \oplus ∕ G$ $M \oplus = ρ \cdot V$ $M \oplus = μ \oplus ∕ G$
البعد	${\displaystyle [M_{\oplus ]=\mathrm {M$